s 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

A STUDY OF THE BEGINNINGS 
OF CHRISTIANITY 



HARRIS FRANKLIN RALL 




ClassZHS^iiJl 
Book .7? 3 
OopyrightN 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



Bible St udy Textbook Series 

New Testament History 



A STUDY OF THE BEGINNINGS 
OF CHRISTIANITY 



By 
HARRIS FRANKLIN RALL, Ph.D. 

President and Professor of Systematic Theology 
The Iliff School of Theology, Denver, Colorado 




THE ABINGDON PRESS 
NEW YORK CINCINNATI 



•7?3 



Copyright, 1914, by 
HARRIS FRANKLIN RALL 

The Bible quotations used in this volume are taken from the American Standard 

Edition of the Revised Bible, Copyright, 1901, by Thomas 

Nelson & Sons, and are used by permission 



SEP 24 1914 



'CU379642 



r 



^ 









To 
R. S. J. R. 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Publishers' Announcement 7 

Introduction 9 

PART I 
THE WORLD OF THE EARLY CHURCH 

CHAPTER 

I. The Roman-Grecian World 13 

II. The Jewish World 20 

PART II 
JESUS 

III. John the Baptist 29 

IV. Birth and Childhood 33 

V. The Call and the Temptation 40 

VI. The Beginnings 46 

VII. The Ministry of Healing 53 

VIII. The Ministry of Forgiveness 57 

IX. The Master Teacher 62 

X. The Kingdom of God 69 

XI. The Father 76 

XII. The Life with God 82 

XIII. The Life with Men 90 

XIV. Foes and Conflicts 95 

XV. Jesus and His Friends 100 

XVI. Turning Points 104 

XVII. Facing Jerusalem 112 

XVIII. Closing Days 118 

XIX. The Last Hours 127 

XX. The Trial and Crucifixon 132 

PART III 
THE JERUSALEM CHURCH 

XXI. The Beginnings of the Church 139 

XXII. The Faith and the Message 147 

XXIII. The Life of the First Community 153 

XXIV. From Jewish Sect to Christian Church 156 

5 



6 CONTENTS 

PART IV 
PAUL AND THE CHURCH OF THE EMPIRE 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XXV. The Man and His Task 169 

XXVI. Conversion and Call 173 

XXVII. Damascus, Syria, and Cilicia 180 

XXVIII. Gentile and Jewish Christians 185 

XXIX. Paul the Missionary 191 

XXX. Galatia 200 

XXXI. Macedonia 207 

XXXII. Achaia 217 

XXXIII. Asia 222 

XXXIV. The Life of an Early Church — 1 230 

XXXV. The Life of an Early Church — II 237 

XXXVI. Paul as Pastor and Church Organizer 245 

XXXVII. Paul the Letter-Writer 254 

XXXVIII. Paul the Prisoner 262 

XXXIX. Paul the Man 273 

PART V 
THE LATER CHURCH 

XL. The Faith of the Later Church 283 

XLI. The Life of the Later Church 292 

XLII. The Making of the New Testament 305 

A Brief Bibliography 314 

MAPS 

Palestine in the Time of Jesus; 4 B. C.-30 A. D. Facing Page 20 
St. Paul's Journeys and the Early Christian Church, 

40-100 A. D 168 



PUBLISHERS' ANNOUNCEMENT 

For some time past there has been a growing conviction 
of the need of a more complete and comprehensive study of 
the Bible in all the colleges. Quite recently the matter has 
received new emphasis and practical direction. A complete 
course of Bible study has been outlined by a joint committee 
representing the Eastern and Western sections of the Asso- 
ciation of College Instructors in the Bible, the departments 
of colleges and universities and of teacher training of the 
Religious Education Association, the Student Y. M. C. A. 
and Y. W. C. A., and Sunday School Council. The proposed 
curriculum is not merely a theoretical outline but has 
already been tested, in part, at some of the leading colleges 
of the country. 

The complete course will include the following books: 
"Old Testament History," by Prof. Ismar J. Peritz, of 
Syracuse University; "New Testament History," by Dr. 
Harris Franklin Rail, President of Iliff School of Theology ; 
"The Bible as Literature," by Prof. Irving F. Wood and 
Prof. Elihu Grant, of Smith College; "Social Institutions 
and Ideals of x the Bible," by Prof. Theodore G. Soares. 
University of Chicago ; and "The History, Principles and 
Methods of Religious Education," by Prof. F. H. Swift, 
University of Minnesota. 

The publishers take pleasure in announcing that the 
volumes on New Testament History and The Bible as 
Literature are now ready. Professor Peritz's volume on 
Old Testament History will be published in time for use 
during the second half of the college year 1914-1915, and 
the remaining volumes by Professors Soares and Swift in 
time for the opening of the 1915-1916 college year. These 
books have been prepared with a view to the requirements 
of the college course and the needs of the student. The 
7 



8 PUBLISHERS' ANNOUNCEMENT 

authors are acknowledged experts in their respective fields — 
scholars and teachers of wide repute. The publishers cor- 
dially commend this course to the attention of Bible students 
and teachers everywhere. 

The Abingdon Press. 



INTRODUCTION 

This history might be more strictly called a study of the 
beginnings of Christianity. While designed primarily for 
use as a college textbook, it should be of equal value to any 
reader who wishes to trace the story of Christianity in its 
first days. 

This is first of all a historical study. The average man 
has been wont to regard Christianity as a fixed and finished 
something that has been dropped down from the skies. If 
you speak of the Christian religion he will think first of all 
of a collection of writings, or of a body of doctrine, or of 
the institution of the church. But these three, Bible and 
doctrine and church, are simply the products of a greater 
movement that lies back of them. To understand Christi- 
anity we must go back to this great current of life, which 
was at once the greatest revelation of the divine Spirit and 
the greatest movement of the human spirit that mankind 
has known. What was the world to which this new life 
came? What did its Founder teach and do? How did 
the world brotherhood come out of the little company of 
Jews that followed him? 

This book is a study of religion. That is why this history 
is of such supreme interest to us. It brings to us the religion 
that dominates the faith and conscience of men to-day, and 
shows us this religion in the person of its great founders 
and in the transforming power of its first great enthusiasm. 
It is a misconception of what New Testament study should 
be, to burden it with the elaborate discussion of dates and 
customs and the like. The supreme interest of the New 
Testament writers is in religion. What they bring us is 
not so much a history of this religion or a statement of its 
doctrines. Their pages reflect, rather, the religion itself, 
the rich and varied life out of which all doctrine and insti- 
9 



io INTRODUCTION 

tutions grew. The study of this life is the best possible 
introduction to the understanding of religion. 

The final aim of this volume is to secure the study of the 
Bible itself. To this end directions for reading and study 
are placed at the end of each chapter. The Scripture 
passages here given should be read carefully in connection 
with the text, after which the other directions for study 
should be carried out. The instructor will naturally modify 
these directions to suit the needs of the individual class. The 
text aims to set the biblical materials in their historical 
relations and to interpret them as part of a great movement. 
The instructor, however, should not be content with question 
and answer based upon the text, but should aim to secure 
first of all an interested and intelligent reading of the Bible 
itself. 

While written frankly from the modern historical point 
of view, this book does not concern itself primarily with 
critical processes. Using the assured results of sober study, 
it aims to set forth reverently and constructively the great 
facts of this early history. It is a pleasure to acknowledge 
the aid received, especially in the revision of the manuscript, 
from my colleague, Professor Lindsay B. Longacre. 

A brief bibliography is appended. The body of the work 
contains no references to other authors. The Bible itself is 
the only book needed. The student should have a copy of 
the American Revised Version with marginal references. 

Harris Franklin Rall. 



PART I 

THE WORLD OF THE EARLY 
CHURCH 



CHAPTER I 
THE ROMAN-GRECIAN WORLD 

We cannot understand even the beginnings of Christianity The world 
without knowing something of the world to which it came, church** 17 
Jesus' life seems quiet enough in its little corner of the 
world ; but Roman soldiers are present when he dies, Greek 
and Latin and Hebrew stand over his cross, and the story 
of his life goes forth to the world not in Hebrew but in 
Greek. Paul's case is even more suggestive. He was a 
Hebrew of the Hebrews, and he bore the message of a 
Jewish Messiah; but he spoke in Greek, he himself was a 
Roman citizen, and his field was the Roman empire. 

These three worlds must be studied separately: (i) the 
Roman world, political and social; (2) the Grecian world 
of language and culture and religion; (3) the Jewish world 
which we study for its religion alone. 

When Jesus was born in the reign of Augustus, Rome The Roman 
had fully entered upon her great career as a world empire, ^travd*^ 
The nations about the Mediterranean had been merged 
under her rule. Great roads stretched everywhere for the 
Roman soldier. The sea had been swept free of pirates. 
Everywhere was safety and quiet. As a result trade and 
travel of all kinds increased enormously. The Mediter- 
ranean was one great highway. Travel was almost as 
general in the empire as it is with us to-day. Paul, with 
his long and constant journeyings, was not an isolated in- 
stance. We can imagine some of those whom he must have 
met upon the road: the wealthy merchant with his shipload 
of corn bound from Alexandria to Rome; a company of 
recruits traveling to join . the army ; university students 
bound for Athens or Alexandria ; travelers for pleasure, 
numerous then as now; wealthy Romans journeying in 
13 



i 4 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

search of health to baths, or to cooler climes ; some throng 
bound for the Isthmian games, or a company of Jews of the 
dispersion on the way to a feast at Jerusalem; everywhere 
the representatives of Rome, officials of administration or 
officers and soldiers ; and finally the common folks, mer- 
chants like Aquila and Priscilla, or artisans seeking for 
work. 
The lot of But the peace and increase of wealth meant little to the 

the common it-. j i j 

people common people. Rome was never a democracy, nor had 

Greece ever been such. There was no great middle class, 
prosperous and intelligent, to form the strength of the nation, 
as with England or America. Of the fifty millions or more 
in the Roman world the wealth and power belonged to but 
very few. Rome was a constant drain upon the provinces. 
Augustus declares that he gave eight gladiatorial exhibits 
in which ten thousand men fought, and twenty-six exhibits 
of conflicts with wild beasts in which thirty-five hundred 
African beasts were slain. At the same time he was making 
his donations of food and money to scores of thousands of 
Roman citizens at one time. All this had to come from the 
toil of the poor. There was also the support of Roman 
armies. The temple of Janus was closed three times in 
Augustus's reign as a sign of universal peace, but the cost 
of that peace was an armed host ready to be hurled east 
or west or north at the first sign of uprising. In addition 
to all this was the procession of governors and officers of 
all kinds moving out to the provinces, amassing wealth in 
their brief term of office, and then giving way to others. 
No wonder the people compared themselves to the beggar, 
who would not chase away the flies that fed at his sores 
since to do so would only be to make room for others unfed 
and more hungry. 

slavery Slavery is another side of this picture. Roman wars 

brought in captives by the scores of thousands. They were 
not necessarily of inferior race, and yet the power of the 
Roman master was absolute. He could feed a slave to the 



THE ROMAN-GRECIAN WORLD 15 

fishes if he would. And the Roman law provided that in case 
any slave killed his master, the whole household of slaves, 
young and old, innocent and guilty, might be put to death. 

These common folks and slaves composed the mass of The gospel 
the members of the early church. To them Christianity's an e poor 
message of deliverance was indeed gospel — "good news." 
It showed them that their souls might be free though their 
bodies were in bondage. It introduced them into a fellow- 
ship where all men were brothers. And it gave them the 
sustaining hope of the new kingdom that was coming, which 
their Master would speedily establish upon earth. 

Despite all this, Roman rule wrought great results for what Rome 
the spread of Christianity. It broke down the old barriers Christianity 
that divided race from race. The oneness of the empire 
prepared the way for that great conception of one brother- 
hood and one Father that Paul proclaimed. Peace and 
unity of the empire made possible that active intercourse 
and travel which did so much for the spread of the new 
faith. It gave broad and safe highways on land and sea, 
little dreaming that they would be remembered longest not 
for the tread of proud armies, but for the journeys of a 
humble Jewish preacher whose message was to lay the 
foundations of a new and greater realm. 

Equally extensive with the Roman rule was the world The Grecian 
of thought and culture which we call Grecian. Greek was language 
the language of the West ; the Roman conquerors had gone 
to school to their captives and taken from them language 
and philosophy and art. Greek was the language of the 
East; Alexander's empire had not lasted long politically, 
but he had carried Grecian culture wherever he went and 
this had remained. The east coast of the Mediterranean 
was dotted with Hellenistic cities, and they were found in 
the interior as far as Persia and India. One language could 
thus be used throughout the length and breadth of the 
Roman world. Into that language the Old Testament had 
been translated, and this Greek Old Testament was the 



If. 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



Religion in 



National 
religions 



Polytheism 
could not last 



Bible of the Jews outside of Palestine. It was in Greek 
that Paul preached from Damascus and Antioch to Rome, 
and in the same language our New Testament was written. 
The language was thus like another Roman road, and even 
more important. Along this road of the mind ideals and 
influences of the greatest power could travel: the great 
conceptions of Greek philosophy, the great religious ideals 
of the Greek Old Testament, and finally the religious con- 
ceptions that came from the farther east. To the considera- 
tion of these we now turn. 

Christianity did not come to a world without faith, or to 
a time of religious decadence. It was a period of the most 
active and eager religious thought and life. In the number 
of religions and religious societies the situation was not 
unlike that with us to-day, except that our societies are 
mostly Christian. These religions were not all darkness 
and error, while even their failures helped prepare the way 
for Christianity. They may be studied under three head- 
ings: i. The old national faiths and their decay. 2. 
Grecian philosophy and its religious meaning. 3. The new 
religions. 

1. The National Religions. In ancient times religion 
was the concern primarily of the tribe or the state, not of 
the individual. It included all the life of a people. The 
founding of a city, the making of war, the planting of grain 
and gathering of harvests, the feasts and the mournings 
were all accompanied and directed by religious rites; and 
the welfare of state and people was held to depend upon 
a proper regard for such observances. 

With Greece and Rome this religion was polytheistic. 
It was not a religion that could last. ( 1 ) It could not stand 
the test of reason. The mind always seeks to find one cause 
and one meaning back of all things. Men could not rest in 
the thought of many gods. (2) It could not stand the test 
of the growing moral sense. It was a Greek philosopher, 
Anaxagoras, who wrote long before Christianity: "Every- 



THE ROMAN-GRECIAN WORLD ly 

thing that men count as disgraceful and immoral — theft, y 
adultery, and deceit — that Homer and Hesiod have ascribed 
to the gods." (3) It could not meet the needs of men, 
and that was the chief reason for its passing. It was more 
the religion of a race in its childhood. It concerned itself 
with the simpler needs of life: harvests, health, safety, 
success in war. But men were asking deeper questions, 
about deliverance from sorrow and sin and death, about the 
hope of a life to come. The time of individualism was 
coming; men wanted a life for themselves, and not simply 
as part of a city or nation. The old faiths had no answer 
for these questions. 

2. Grecian Philosophy. The story of Grecian philosophy Grecian 
is a noble chapter in human history. It has its great char- p osop y 
acters like Socrates, the man of whom Xenophon could 
write, "He was so devout that he never did anything without 
the counsel of the gods, so just that he never injured anyone 
even in the least, so truly master of himself that he never 
chose the agreeable instead of the good." In a later de- 
velopment, which we call Stoicism, this philosophy could 
show such spirits as Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius. 
So closely do some of the thoughts of Seneca resemble 
those of Paul that some writers used to hold that the former 
had borrowed from the latter. The Greek philosophy in the 
main was deeply religious. It was monotheistic ; though 
the gods are often spoken of, it is one Divine Being that is 
meant. It was ethical. Plato sets forth a noble ideal of 
righteousness, of the just man who shows good to foe as 
well as friend. The Stoic picture of the wise man is even 
nobler, the man who is strong, self-contained, unmoved by 
outward conditions of good or evil, showing the same spirit 
toward the evil and the good. 

But Grecian philosophy too failed to meet the needs of the where it 
day. It had nothing for the common man. It was a religion failed 
for the strong and the wise. The common man needs more 
than a high ideal, he needs some power to help him reach it. 



i8 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The mystery 
religions 



Their 
character 



Differ from 
Christianity 



There was no message here of any God who cared for men, 
or who could redeem them. The world was waiting for a 
religion of redemption, a religion of hope and help. The 
Stoic God was like the Stoic wise man, serene and calm and 
self-sufficient, but unmoved by the needs of men. 

3. The mystery religions professed to meet this very 
need. We may call them the new religions, for about this 
time they began to pour into the Roman world from the 
east. We do not know much about these religions, for the 
classical writers of Greece and Rome looked down upon these 
cults as beneath their notice. It was for the very same 
reason that these writers did not mention Christianity. Like 
Christianity, these were the religions of the "lower classes." 
But the real religious life of the empire was in these faiths. 
These, and not the old polytheism or the noble philosophies, 
became the real competitors of Christianity. 

Of these mystery religions there were many kinds, and 
yet they had certain aspects in common. (1) They were 
usually founded upon some story, the mystery, the tale of 
some god and of his life and death and coming to life again. 
Such is the story of Osiris coming from Egypt, the story 
of Mithra brought from Persia, and that of Dionysius in 
Greece. (2) These religions are no longer national. They 
come to men individually and unite them in societies, just 
as the believers were joined together in the Christian 
churches. (3) These religions were marked by ceremonies 
and sacraments. The members were initiated into the myth, 
or secret story of the god. There were sacred meals and 
washings and other rites, sometimes bloody and barbarous, 
sometimes involving gross excesses. (4) The great thought 
was that of redemption. The great end was deliverance 
from evil, especially death, by means of union with the god. 

Looked at superficially, there is much here that suggests 
the new Christian religion, and men have not been wanting 
who held that Paul, for example, was deeply influenced in 
his thought by these faiths. Here are societies like the 



THE ROMAN-GRECIAN WORLD 19 

churches, with sacraments of supper and baptism and the 
story of a dying and risen god. And these religions, like 
Christianity, appeal as religions of redemption, offering to 
save men. A very little study shows how deep the differ- 
ences are. It is enough to point out two. ( 1 ) The salvation 
which Christianity offered was ethical. While these religions 
relied upon rites and magic, Christianity put at the center 
a new spirit and a new life. It met the final problem : not 
how to save men from sorrow, or even from death, but how 
to save them from sin, to make character. (2) These 
religions built upon a myth, a tale; Christianity came with 
a great historic fact — Christ as the revelation of the will of 
God, as the bearer of the mercy and help of God. 



CHAPTER II 
THE JEWISH WORLD 



Christianity 
and the 
Jewish faith 



The Semitic 
world 



The land of 
the Jews 



Greece and Rome and the Orient all had their influence 
upon Christianity and its development, but it was the Jewish 
world from which the new faith directly sprang. Its founder 
was a Jew and spoke a Semitic tongue. His work was done 
within the narrow borders of the little Jewish province. 
The early leaders of the movement, Paul, Peter, and James, 
were all of the same race. Above all, it was the noble faith 
of Israel in which Christianity rooted. 

What was the place of the Jew in the Roman world? 
The Jew was, first of all, a part of a larger Semitic world. 
Rome's old enemies, the Carthaginians, belonged to this 
race, as did the Phoenicians along the east coast of the 
Mediterranean ; and other Semitic peoples extended as 
far east as Babylonia. Most of these used a common 
tongue called Aramaic. The Jews at this time used a 
dialect of this tongue instead of the old Hebrew in which 
the Old Testament was written. 

Palestine was the old home of the Jews. It is usually 
thought of as having been shut off from the rest of the 
world and from the great movements of history. As a 
matter of fact, it lay on the great highways that joined the 
nations of antiquity. It was a meeting place for three 
continents. Along these roads swept in turn the armies 
of the great conquering nations, Babylonia, Assyria, Egypt, 
Macedonia, Syria, Rome. Israel had felt the influence of 
all these and yet had preserved her individuality. At the 
time of Jesus' birth she was ruled by Herod the Great, a 
selfish and cruel but strong monarch. The land had been 
separated by Rome, however, into several divisions. The 
province of Judaea was the principal one. This included 




(INCLUDING THE PERIOD OF HEROD 40-4 B. Cj 



THE JEWISH WORLD 21 

Idumaea to the south, Judaea proper (corresponding to the 
old southern kingdom), and Samaria (corresponding to 
the old kingdom of Israel). The chief Jewish population 
lay in the two latter, which formed a territory but little 
larger than half of the State of Iowa or Illinois. North 
of Samaria lay Galilee, where Jesus' home was. It had 
not long been settled by the Jews and was still half Gentile. 
Across the Jordan lay Peraea, which was joined with Galilee 
to form a tetrarchy. After Herod the Great the kingdom 
was divided. At the time of Jesus' ministry the province of 
Judaea was under the direct control of the emperor. The 
governor appointed by him was called procurator, and at 
this time was Pontius Pilate. The tetrarchy of Galilee 
and Peraea at the time of the Gospels was under Herod 
Antipas, whom Jesus called the fox. The Jews had a very 
large measure of self-government in Judaea under their 
high priest and Sanhedrin, or Senate. For the most part 
their religious customs and scruples were respected. But 
the crushing burden of taxation was never intermitted. 
There were poverty and distress in abundance. The hated 
publican was always present as a sign of their bondage, 
and constantly smoldering underneath all was the religious- 
patriotic passion which flamed forth at last in the hopeless 
revolt against Rome that ended in the destruction of 
Jerusalem. 

But the Jew was not limited to Palestine then any more The jew in 
than he is now. In their earlier history the Jews had been the ' 
carried off by force into captivity, while in the later years 
vastly greater numbers had gone into other lands of their 
own free will. The scattered Jews were called the Diaspora, 
or Dispersion. The Jew had once been a nomad with 
herds and flocks, as his Arab cousin is to-day. When he 
settled in Canaan he became an agriculturist. But before 
the time of Christ he had begun the career of tradesman, 
in which we know him so well. Then, as now, he was 
scattered throughout the world. Over a century before 



22 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The disper- 
sion a prep- 
aration for 
Christianity 



The religion 
of the 
prophets 



Christ the Grecian geographer Strabo wrote, "One cannot 
readily find any place in the world which has not received 
this tribe and been taken possession of by it." There were 
from four to four and a half million Jews in the empire, 
probably not far from a twelfth of the whole population. 
Then, as now, they were looked down upon and often 
persecuted. And yet they enjoyed special privileges. They 
usually formed in each city a special community with some 
measure of self-government. The synagogue was the center 
of the community, and over a hundred and fifty of these 
are known to have been scattered throughout the empire. 

This dispersion of the Jews was of the greatest signifi- 
cance for Christianity. Rome built roads for the gospel, 
Greece gave it a language, but the Jews had prepared the 
approach to men's hearts and minds. Every Jewish syna- 
gogue was a center of religious influence. About it there 
was usually a fringe of converts, or proselytes, or at least 
a number of interested inquirers and attendants who were 
spoken of as "devout" or "God-fearing" (Acts 10. 22; 17. 
4). Despite the prejudice against the Jews, the pure faith, 
the simple worship, and the high moral ideals must have 
proven attractive to many noble souls in the Roman world. 
Thus the leaven of the Old Testament moral and spiritual 
ideals was spread throughout the empire, and Paul's first 
and best converts were among these Gentiles that had 
already been touched by Judaism. 

The religion of Judaism is of supreme interest to the 
Christian. Jesus did not profess to bring a new faith. He 
came to the Jews with the faith of their fathers ; his God 
was Jehovah, "the God of Abraham and Isaac and Jacob." 
The highest expression of the Hebrew religion was in the 
prophets and the psalms. It was not merely the thought 
of one God, such as Grecian philosophy had reached; it 
was the character of that God as a God of righteousness 
and mercy. From this conception of God came the pure 
and noble idea of religion ; for such a God asks of men not 



THE JEWISH WORLD 23 

sacrifice and ritual, but "to do justly, and to love kindness, 
and to walk humbly with God" (Mic 6. 8). Upon this 
religion of the prophets Jesus built, and we cannot under- 
stand Christianity without it. Side by side with it in the 
Old Testament is a great system of ceremonial law, but with 
this priestly religion Jesus showed little sympathy. 

There is a difference, however, between the Old Testa- Judaism and 
ment religion and the religion of Jesus' day, or Judaism. A the Uw 
living religion does not stand still. The last four centuries 
before Christ were of great importance for the Jewish 
religion, though we read little of this history in the Old 
Testament. The Jews had become a part of Alexander's 
empire. The Greeks, not contented with political rule, 
wished to change the eastern civilization and Hellenize it. 
At first they made some progress with the Jews. Grecian 
games and customs were introduced. There was a strong 
and growing liberal party. Then Antiochus, called Epi- 
phanes, tried to force the process. He tried to compel the 
Jews to give up circumcision, the Sabbath, and the books 
of the law. As a result he merely strengthened the oppo- 
sition and aroused the people. The party of the law 
triumphed. Everything that separated the Jews from the 
nations was emphasized. The passion of the Jews and the 
chief concern of religion became more and more the mere 
keeping of the many precepts of the law. All this bore its 
fruits in Jesus' day. Religion was not fellowship with God. 
God was far off. In his place were these laws which he had 
given. Religion was keeping these laws, and the endless 
traditions which had grown up about them. It was an 
almost impossible burden, and many made no attempt at 
all to carry it (Acts 15. 10). 

Side by side with the law was the hope. We might The hope 
describe the Jewish religion as an ellipse with the law and 
the hope as the two foci about which it moved. This hope 
we first meet in the Old Testament. It is the hope of the 
Messianic kingdom, that at some time Israel's enemies are to 



24 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



Influences 
from without 



be overthrown and she is to reign in triumph. Prophets 
like Isaiah give us a wonderful picture of the new earth 
that is to come, in which peace and righteousness shall 
prevail. Usually, though not always, the prophets spoke of 
a Messiah who was to bring in this new kingdom. Such 
a hope might be very broad and generous, as in Isa 19. 24, 
25 : "In that day shall Israel be the third with Egypt and 
with Assyria, a blessing in the midst of the earth; for that 
Jehovah of hosts hath blessed them, saying, Blessed be 
Egypt my people, and Assyria the work of my hands, and 
Israel mine inheritance." But it might be very narrow as 
it was in Jesus' day, when the Jews dreamed only of their 
own triumph and thought not so much of a reign of 
righteousness as of material blessings. 

The Jews had resisted every attempt to break down their 
peculiar faith and to engulf them in the mixture of religions 
and races which made the Hellenistic-Roman world. They 
did not, however, remain uninfluenced. This is especially 
seen in the changes that took place in the Messianic hope. 
We see this in Jewish writings of this period. We hear 
about angels and demons. The world is divided into two 
opposing forces of light and darkness, and these are to meet 
at last in a great conflict which is to bring in the new age. 
There are to be resurrection and judgment, heaven and hell. 
These ideas, which are lacking in the Old Testament, show 
the influence of the East, and especially of Persia. 
Pharisees 7 We have spoken so far as though there were no differences 
of religious thought among the Jews. The New Testament 
pages show us that there were different parties and classes. 
First among these are the Pharisees. They were the separa- 
tists, or Puritans, of their day. In the days of the struggle 
against Antiochus and the Greek customs they stood for 
the law and the separation of Israel from all the pagan life 
about them. They favored the strictest observance of the 
law and all the rules that had been built around it by 
tradition. There were not many of them — Josephus says 



THE JEWISH WORLD 25 

six thousand — but their influence with the people was very 
great. With them are usually mentioned in the New Testa- 
ment the scribes. They were the teachers of the law, the 
lawyers, and they usually belonged to the Pharisaic party. 
They studied not so much the law as the mass of teachings 
about the law which had been handed down from the older 
rabbis. Their teaching was simply a remembering and 
repeating of these traditions, a dreary and endless process 
that sank more and more to trifles and puerilities, while 
neglecting "the weightier matters of the law, justice, and 
mercy, and faith." 

The Sadducees were the aristocrats, the party of the Sadducees 
priestly nobility. They were conservatives in theology, dis- 
regarding the traditions of the scribes, holding only to the 
older written law, and refusing more modern doctrines like 
those of the resurrection and of spirits. In religion, how- 
ever, they represented the more liberal and worldly wing. 
They were not so strict in observing the law and were quite 
ready to make alliance with the Romans if it would keep 
them in power. They had no influence with the people and 
their power depended upon their control of the temple. 
After the destruction of the temple and the city in the year 
70 they disappear. 

With all their faults the Pharisees were the real repre- The failure 
sentatives of the religious life of the people. But if they °' areli K ion 

r r - of law 

show the strength of Judaism, they show its weakness too. 
The religion of the law could not save men. With those 
who felt that they had kept the law, like the Pharisees, it 
gendered formalism and pride. With others it created 
either indifference or despair; the law was no help, but an 
impossible burden. Never did a people show more zeal for 
religion. "I bear them witness that they have a zeal for 
God," says Paul (Rom 10. 2). But it could not give men 
peace of heart or moral victory. Judaism trained the 
conscience which she could not still. She stood far above 
the other religions of the day. She saw that salvation must 



26 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

mean righteousness. Jeremiah had spoken of the law that 
was to be written in men's hearts (31. 31-34). Ezekiel 
had written of the new spirit that was to be given (36. 26, 
27). The psalmist had uttered his great petition, "Create 
in me a clean heart, O God ; and renew a right spirit within 
me" (51. 10). But the religion of law could not bring this 
about. That remained for a new faith. 



PART II 
JESUS 



27 



CHAPTER III 

JOHN THE BAPTIST 

There is no more striking figure in the Bible than that John's 
of John the Baptist. Only a few words are given to him in I^JJj ^ 
the Gospels, and yet how clear the picture stands before us : 
the rude figure from the desert, the stern message of judg- 
ment, the thronging multitudes, the tragic end. For Chris- 
tian thought he has been overshadowed by Jesus ; on his own 
age he made a profound impression. He had no pleasant 
doctrine, and yet from Jerusalem and all Judaea there 
flocked to his preaching the people of every class — common 
folks and proud Pharisees, Sadducean aristocrats and plain 
soldiers. His name was upon every lip when Jesus was still 
unknown. Men asked one another whether he could be the 
Messiah. His stern words reached the palace and led at 
last to imprisonment and death. Yet even after his execution 
men could not think him dead, and the first reports of 
Jesus' work made them ask whether John was not risen 
from the dead (Mark 6. 14; 8. 28). Paul found disciples of 
his as remote as Ephesus, one of whom became a notable 
leader in the church (Acts 18. 25; 19. 1-7). The tragedy 
of the end helped to deepen the impression. Apparently 
at the height of his power, Herod laid hold upon him. 
The Gospels say it was because John had denounced Herod's 
sin. Josephus declares that Herod feared lest John, with 
his great influence over the people, might lead them to some 
rebellion. Perhaps both reasons entered in. In any case, 
the prison walls never opened for John again, and his 
murder must have followed soon. 

We cannot class John with any circle or party of his The prophet 
day. He was, as Jesus said, a prophet. In him there came to 
life again that great line of men who were Israel's con- 
29 



30 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The message 



The meaning 
of John's 
baptism 



science and Israel's faith, and whose like no other nation 
of antiquity can show. Like them, he came with no pomp 
or heralding. His message constituted his credentials. He 
might have said with Amos, "The Lord Jehovah hath 
spoken; who can but prophesy?" John was a preacher, 
"the voice of one crying in the wilderness." 

The message of John is essentially that of the great 
prophets. The great foundation for him, as for them, is 
the truth that religion means righteousness. But there is 
an urgency in John's message that comes from a special 
cause : the kingdom of God is at hand. To the Jews that was 
a welcome word. It meant that Jehovah was coming to 
judge the nations and deliver his people. The rule of the 
hated Romans was to be overthrown and Israel's glory 
established. Into this easy-going hope John cuts with the 
sharp sword of his word: "Repent ye. The judgment is 
coming, but it will not be upon the Gentiles. Rather it will 
be a sifting of Israel, and the test will be righteousness. 
The Jews will not be saved because they have kept the 
form of the law. The Messiah is at hand with his judg- 
ment. He will lay his ax at the root of every evil tree. He 
will winnow the wheat from the chaff with his fan. My 
baptism is with water. His will be with fire that shall burn 
up all the dross. The rule of God is at hand; repent and 
make ready." 

It is in the light of this message that we are to under- 
stand the meaning of the baptism to which John invited the. 
people. This was something different from the practice 
of the prophets. Was John, after preaching righteousness, 
falling back into the idea that a mere ceremony could have 
value in itself? There is no reason for thinking this. The 
form itself was familiar to the Jews as a symbol of cleansing 
in case of ceremonial defilement (Lev 15 and elsewhere). 
It was also used when a Gentile convert, or proselyte, was 
enrolled. Both these meanings appear with John, though 
not as mere ceremony. It was first a sign of cleansing, of 



JOHN THE BAPTIST 31 

repentance and turning from evil; and second an enroll- 
ment, a consecration to the new rule of God that was 
at hand. It was the outward expression of the accept- 
ance of his message: Repent, for the kingdom of God is 
at hand. 

The remarkable response of the people to John's message The response 
was due first to its declaration that the kingdom of God was Message 
at their doors. Chafing under the hated Roman rule, no 
wonder that they flocked to him when the rumor of this 
message spread. But the deeper and more lasting response 
was awakened by his call to repentance. With all her 
formalism Israel had a conscience, and a conscience like 
that of no other nation of her day. True, her religion had 
become largely legalism and her prophets had lost their 
first place, but their work had not been in vain. She did 
not want such preaching, any more than Florence wanted 
Savonarola, but, like Florence, she answered to it, at least 
for a time. John's message was fearless and searching. 
He pointed out definite sins. And his appeal gained tre- 
mendous power because he pictured the Messiah and his 
judgment at the door. 

The limitations of John's work are closely joined to its John's 
strength. He represents the old at its highest. The moun- 
tain peaks of the Old Testament are the prophets, and in 
John we hear their message again. But John did not get 
beyond the old. Men needed the message of sin and judg- 
ment ; but they needed something more — a message of 
deliverance. John had gotten no farther than Paul before 
his conversion. Paul too knew of law and righteousness 
and judgment. But if these were not enough for Paul, 
the man of moral earnestness and mighty will, how could 
they save the throngs of common folks who came to John's 
preaching? That was what Jesus meant when he said that 
they that were but little in the kingdom of God were greater 
than John. They knew the God of mercy and had learned 
to say, "Our Father." 



limitations 



32 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

John and John himself knew that his work was not final, but a mere 

Jesus 

preparation : "He that cometh after me is mightier than I." 
How much farther John went we cannot know surely. He 
did not cease his work after Jesus' appearance. He had 
disciples who continued faithful, and that, too, long after 
his death (Acts 19. 1-7). From his prison he sends a 
message to Jesus by his disciples asking whether he be the 
expected Messiah or no. Jesus' own estimate of John is 
significant (Luke 7. 24-28). He sees his courage, earnest- 
ness, and independence, and pays the remarkable tribute: 
'Among them that are born of women there is none greater 
than John." But the meaning of his work is preparation: 

"This is he of whom it is written, 
Behold I send my messenger before thy face, 
Who shall prepare thy way before thee." 

John's greatest work was to make ready the way for Jesus 
and to call attention to him. 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

Birth: Luke 1. 5-25, 57-66, 80. Ministry: Luke 3. 1-20; Mark 
1. 1-8; Matt 3. 1-12. Imprisonment: Mark 6. 14-29- Jesus and 
John: Luke 7. 18-25. 

Read carefully the reports of John's preaching and make a list 
of the things he condemned and of the things he demanded. 

Read Amos 3 and 4. What points of resemblance are there 
between John's preaching and that of Amos? 

Write out a simple statement of the facts of John's life as learned 
from the Gospels. 



CHAPTER IV 
BIRTH AND CHILDHOOD 

"John Stuart Mill, the great philosopher of positivism, jesus as 
once said, that humanity could not be too often reminded of °J| 1 r d central 
the fact that there was once a man by the name of Soc- 
rates. He was right; but it is more important to remind 
humanity again and again that once there stood in her 
midst a man by the name of Jesus Christ." To understand 
the beginnings of the Christian religion one must first study 
Jesus. It is not necessary to construct a biography. The 
Gospels do not really afford the material for this. We 
may study his life in broad outline, but the great aim is 
to get a picture of Jesus himself, what he taught, what he 
wrought, and what his spirit and purpose in life were. This 
simple life, that came to so early a close, was the turning 
point of human history. What was this life to have produced 
this result? 

The story of Jesus' birth is given by only two of the four Matthew's 
Gospels, and these two give us quite distinct accounts. 2° fthe 
Matthew's story is as follows : Joseph is informed by an 
angel that Mary, to whom he is betrothed, shall bear a 
child. To the mother and child in Bethlehem (nothing is 
said of Nazareth) there come certain Magi with gifts, led 
there by a star. Warned by an angel, Joseph flees to Egypt, 
while Herod slays the little children of Bethlehem in the 
effort to kill the one that "was born King of the Jews." 
Joseph returns after Herod's death, but fears to go to 
Judaea on account of Archelaus and so settles at Nazareth 
in Galilee (Matt i. 1 8 to 2. 23). 

Luke's story is longer and introduces a larger circle. Luke's story 
Here it is Mary that is told of the wonderful child who 
is to be the deliverer of his people. From their village 
33 



34 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The two 

stories 

compared 



The meaning 
of the story 



The virgin 
birth 



in Nazareth, Joseph and Mary go to their ancestral home 
at Bethlehem near Jerusalem because of a census taken 
by the Romans. Here she brings forth her child, while 
simple shepherds, who have seen a light and heard a won- 
derful song, come to worship from the nearby fields. In 
Bethlehem they remain until they have fulfilled the re- 
quirements of the law, first circumcising the child, then 
after thirty-three days presenting the child in the temple 
and offering for the mother the simple sacrifice that was 
asked of the poor. This done, they return to Nazareth 
(Luke 2. 1-39). 

About these stories there has been a great deal of discus- 
sion, and principally for two reasons : first, because of the 
differences between them; second, because of the story of 
the virgin birth. As to the former, the differences include 
not only those in the two stories just told but in the gen- 
ealogies which both give. It is plain that the writers had 
formed quite different pictures as to how the birth of Jesus 
occurred. How far they can be reconciled is not really an 
important matter. They agree as to the parents of the 
child, the place of the birth and later home, and the won- 
derful manner and meaning of that birth. 

What is more important is to appreciate the beautiful 
simplicity of the story, especially as told by Luke. There 
is no stronger witness to its essential truth. It is not such 
a story as men would have invented for the coming of a 
king. The humble parents, the rude stable, the simple 
shepherds, the quiet return home again — nothing could be 
simpler, more human than this. The essential faith of the 
early church is set forth here in truest manner. For that 
church the life of Jesus was first of all a normal human 
life, just as is shown here. Secondly, it was a life from 
God, the life in which God came to men. 

As to the story of the virgin birth, it has been pointed 
out that the rest of the New Testament is silent upon this, 
and that in Luke there is but a single clause that refers 



BIRTH AND CHILDHOOD 35 

to it. Two points should be made clear here. One is 
that the virgin birth was evidently not essential for the 
faith of the early church. Paul and John, who say nothing 
concerning it, are the two writers who give us the highest 
conception of the divinity of Jesus. The other is, that to the 
church it has always seemed the fitting conception of the 
mode of the coming of the Messiah. It is always to be re- 
membered, however, that it is the character and life of 
Jesus which lead us to believe in the virgin birth, and 
not the virgin birth which leads us to believe in Jesus. 

The exact date of Jesus' birth is not known, neither The date of 
month nor day nor year. It was not till the sixth century thebirth 
that men began to date events from the birth of Christ. It 
was a Roman monk, Dionysius the Little, that proposed it. 
His reckoning was not accurate, and the date of the birth 
is probably about 5 B. C. So much is known, that the civ- 
ilized world to-day, in every event that its histories record 
and every document of business or of news, pays tribute to 
that humble birth as the turning point of history. 

Of the home life of Jesus there is little to be said. His The Nazareth 
father is not mentioned in the Gospels, and tradition says 
that he died early. That must have meant burdens of labor 
and responsibility for Jesus as the oldest son. There were 
at least seven children (Matt 13. 55, 56), five of them sons. 
It must have been a very humble home, probably but a 
single room, and that used for the carpenter work as well. 
But it must have been a very rich home. When we think 
of the Jews of Jesus' day, we are apt to call up the New 
Testament pictures of the formal Pharisees or the worldly 
Sadducees. The first pages of Luke show us another 
circle. Here are Elisabeth and Zacharias, Simeon and 
Anna, Joseph and Mary. The songs of Mary and Zach- 
arias and the words of Elisabeth and Simeon show us the 
atmosphere in which these people moved, the simple piety 
and the earnest expectation with which they looked for the 
day of deliverance of their nation. There must have been 



36 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The educa- 
tion of a 
Jewish boy 



many such simple, quiet lives in which the noblest spirit of 
the Old Testament psalms and prophetic writings lived on. 
And such was Jesus' home. We are told that Joseph was a 
just, or kind, man. A devout man he must have been. He 
gave his sons the old patriarchal names: Jesus (or Joshua), 
James (or Jacob), Joseph, Simon, and Judas. Jesus' own 
words seem to give us suggestions of what that home life 
was. When he prays in the garden he uses the simple 
word that Mary taught him to call Joseph as a little child, 
the Aramaic word for father, "Abba." He cannot think of 
a father who would give his child a stone for bread. Many 
of his illustrations must have been taken from the old 
home: the dough swelling and bubbling with the leaven, 
the housewife sweeping the dark room for the lost coin, 
the hungry children crowding around for a bit of bread, 
the father abed at night with his children about him in 
the one room of the house and unwilling to get up for the 
neighbor who comes to borrow a loaf. 

We can form some picture also of the training which 
Jesus received. No other nation had such a system of edu- 
cation as the Jews. It was for all children, not for the 
few. The theme of instruction was the law. "Ask one of us 
concerning the laws," says Josephus, the Jewish historian, 
"and he can recite them all more readily than he could 
repeat his own name." The mother began the work at 
home, which was taken up by the father, and probably 
carried on in the elementary village school connected with 
the synagogue. The first words that Jesus thus learned at 
home were probably the noble opening words from the 
Shema, or confession of faith : "Hear, O Israel : Jehovah 
our God is one Jehovah: and thou shalt love Jehovah thy 
God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all 
thy might" (Deut 6. 4). The various festivals of the 
Jewish year, marking the great events in Jewish history, 
were a part of this education, as were also the regular 
gatherings at the synagogue. Luke tells how Jesus in his 



BIRTH AND CHILDHOOD 37 

early ministry "came to Nazareth, where he had been 
brought up : and he entered, as his custom was, into the 
synagogue on the Sabbath day." 

At the same time it is important to realize that Jesus The influence 
was brought up in Galilee, not in Jerusalem or Judsea. 
There was a wide gulf between the religion of the prophets 
and psalmists that filled his heart, and the deadly formal- 
ism, the slavery of the letter, the narrow bigotry and pride 
that opposed him when he came to work as a man. There 
is. a humanness in his spirit, a breadth in his outlook, a 
simplicity and directness in his teaching, that we cannot 
associate with the streets of Jerusalem or the classrooms of 
the rabbis. 

One incident from the boyhood days tells us how deeply The first 
the training took hold upon this youth. At the age of T^^,,, 
twelve or thirteen years the Jewish boy became a man in 
matters of religion and assumed the full duties of the faith. 
One of these was the journey thrice a year to the great 
feasts at Jerusalem. The story of Jesus' first visit is the 
only break in the silence that rests upon the years from 
infancy to the day when he began his ministry. Later 
legends tell of a precocious cjiild confounding the learned 
doctors in the temple by superhuman knowledge. Luke's 
picture is very simple, though deeply suggestive. It is 
that of a boy already thoughtful about the deep things of 
life, and so stirred by the city and the temple and the 
solemn ceremonies of the passover feast that he forgets 
parents and all as he tarries in the temple. His one passion 
is already the business of his Father. But it is all normal 
and wholesome. He goes back as the dutiful son, and his 
life unfolds as a boy's life should, growing in mind and 
body, in the esteem of parents and friends, and in fellowship 
with God (Luke 2. 40-52). 

One other element in his training must be noted. As The training 
the boy grew older, he came to know a larger world than ° f ^* larger 
his home and village. We know how deeply the world of 



38 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

nature impressed Jesus. Paul speaks of cities and soldiers 
and athletic contests; Jesus of birds and flowers, of fields 
and flocks, of storms and sunsets. The Galilee of his day 
was a beautiful and most fertile country. And then there 
was the larger world of men. It has been a common 
mistake to think of Nazareth as a quiet spot far from 
the life of the great world, where Jesus was nurtured in 
seclusion. That is far from the truth. The village itself 
was not large, perhaps of but a few thousand inhabitants, 
and it was hid away in a basin of the hills. But above it 
rose the crest of these hills some fifteen hundred feet higher 
than the sea level. How often Jesus must have looked out 
from those heights upon "the kingdoms of the world, and 
the glory of them." The smiling waters of Galilee lay 
scarce more than fifteen miles to the east. Only a few 
miles farther to the northwest was the Mediterranean. Near 
by ran north and south the great highway which for cen- 
turies joined the ancient kingdoms of Egypt and Babylonia, 
along which so many armies had marched to victory or 
defeat. Just below, to the south, was the great plain of 
Esdraelon, where so many of Israel's battles had been fought. 
All about was the teeming life of Galilee, with its numberless 
villages and cities. The Roman world had crowded in 
here. Jesus heard the Greek language spoken and the 
Scriptures read in the Greek translation, and must have 
known the language himself, though he probably preferred 
the Aramaic. From the hills above his home he must have 
seen at times the Roman legions on their march, and Roman 
rulers with their brilliant following. Something of what 
happened in the great Roman world he knew, for in one 
of his parables he uses the incident of the embassy that 
was sent after Archelaus, when this son of Herod went to 
Rome to get his kingdom. 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

Matt i. 18 to 2. 23; Luke 1. 26 to 2. 52. 

Write out the incidents of the annunciation and birth as given 



BIRTH AND CHILDHOOD 39 

respectively by Matthew and Luke. Note the apparent differences 
and points of agreement. 

Read carefully the songs of Mary, Zacharias, and Simeon. What 
book of writings in the Old Testament do they resemble? What 
is their central thought or interest? What do they suggest as to 
the character of these persons? With the aid of a Bible that has 
marginal references, make a list of the Old Testament passages that 
are used or alluded to. Compare Mary's song with 1 Sam 2. 1-10. 



CHAPTER V 



THE CALL AND THE TEMPTATION 



The years 
of quiet 



The spirit of 
the young 



Jesus and 
the preaching 
of John 



Among the hearers of John there had been many who 
came down from Galilee. Jesus had been among that num- 
ber. It was John's word that called him forth at last 
from the quiet of Nazareth to begin his life task. He was 
about thirty when that work began. What had taken 
place in these years of boyhood and young manhood? Of 
all that time since he was twelve we have no record of a 
word. The life that we do know, however, seems to 
make some things clear about these earlier years. 

In the first place, Jesus' life shows no sign of any moral 
break in it. If we turn to great leaders like Paul and 
Augustine and Luther, we get a very different picture. 
Their Christian life stands forth from an earlier back- 
ground of doubt and sin. They bear the marks of struggle 
and the scars of past defeat. That is true of all the great 
spiritual leaders — except Jesus. The spirit that is shown in 
the boy in the temple filled his young manhood: the sense 
of a close fellowship with his Father, and the passion to 
do God's will. With these two there was a third: the 
growing conviction as to the deliverance that Jehovah was 
to bring his people. He shared that hope with the rest 
of the nation, but with one great difference: with them it 
was the deliverance from the rule of Rome, while Jesus 
saw that it was the rule of evil in men's lives that was to be 
overthrown. How often at dusk or dawn had he looked 
out from the hill above Nazareth and asked what his part 
was to be in God's plan. 

No wonder that the news of John's work found a response 
in him. 'The kingdom is at hand." John was preaching 
not the overthrow of Rome but repentance for sin. And 
40 



THE CALL AND THE TEMPTATION 41 

the people were answering to the call. This was God's 
doing. To Jesus it was a call to be about his Father's 
business. And so he joins John's hearers and offers him- 
self for baptism. Many have wondered how Jesus could 
offer himself for a baptism of repentance. But we have 
seen that this was not the only or the final meaning of 
the rite. John was another Elijah, summoning the people 
to stand for this coming Jehovah or against him. Jesus 
was ready to stand with John and with them, only it did 
not mean for him repentance from an evil past as it did 
with them. He was but showing in public the pledge of 
allegiance which had ruled his whole life. 

Mark's account of what happened at the baptism is the The baptism 
simplest as it is the oldest. "And straightway coming out andtheca11 
of the water, he saw the heavens rent asunder, and the 
Spirit as a dove descending upon him: and a voice came 
out of the heavens, Thou art my beloved Son, in thee I 
am well pleased" (Mark 1. 10, 11). A young man's greatest 
question is that of his life calling. Not till he was thirty 
had the answer come to Jesus, for there is no sign that 
he knew before this time that he was to be the deliverer of 
the people. He had heard John's stirring words, had looked 
at the throngs that bent under them, and had realized that 
the day of deliverance was at hand. Now as he came out 
of the water he heard his call, "Thou art my beloved Son." 
These words are taken from the second psalm. It was a 
Messianic psalm for the Jews, and the Son meant the Mes- 
siah. It was the Father's call to him: "The kingdom is at 
hand, and thou art my Son; thou art to be the deliverer, 
the Messiah." 

Jesus had always lived in fellowship with God. Now The forty 
there came a new sense of God's presence to his soul, stirred daysof 

prayer 

to its depths at the same time by the sense of what his life 
was to be. He must find solitude to meditate. Mark says 
that he was "driven" by the Spirit into the wilderness. It 
was the same need that drove him again and again in later 



4 2 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The 
temptation 



The story 
from Jesus 



Jesus' use 
of picture 
language 



days to places of quiet. When he chooses his disciples, 
in the hour before his arrest, and at other great turning 
points of his life, we find him on the mountainside or be- 
neath the trees in prayer. So at this time he goes forth to 
gather strength and to meditate upon the work he is to do. 

Out of this last comes his temptation. We have it in 
strange picture form. The devil appears to him. He bids 
Jesus turn stones to bread, lest he perish from hunger. 
He carries him to a temple pinnacle and bids him cast 
himself down. He shows him from a mountain the king- 
doms of the world and offers them to Jesus if he will 
worship him. 

First of all we must remember that this story could come 
only from Jesus himself. It is not unlikely that he told 
it to his disciples in those last days when he had set his 
face to go to Jerusalem. They saw his danger from his 
foes. He was teaching them that death might come, that 
it was his duty simply to do God's will, and that it was such 
self-sacrifice that was to bring in the kingdom and not any 
outward triumph. At such a time he may have told them 
the story of his own first period of temptation. Studied 
thoughtfully, it is a story of supreme value for our under- 
standing of Jesus' life and work. It is a bit of autobiography 
in which Jesus reveals his inmost self. 

We must remember, in the second place, that it is a pic- 
ture form which Jesus uses. This picture language was 
Jesus' common method as a teacher, and he uses it not 
simply in the parables. He speaks of the devil here just 
as when he says to Peter, "Get thee behind me, Satan," 
and for the same reason, for he sees in Peter's suggestion 
the same evil that he discerned in the tempting thoughts 
that came to him in the wilderness. Thus, at another time, 
when he welcomed back the disciples who had been out 
preaching and healing, Jesus did not say, "This is the be- 
ginning of the overthrow of evil." He said, "I beheld 
Satan fallen as lightning from heaven." The significant 



THE CALL AND THE TEMPTATION 43 

fact is not that there was a literal bodily Satan whom Jesus 
allowed to carry him to temple and mountain, but that 
Jesus in the thoughts and conflicts of those days saw through 
many of the ideas which the people held as to the Mes- 
siah, and knew that they were evil. 

What, then, was the conflict? The question which con- The conflict: 
cerned Jesus in those days was this : What is the nature how sh ° uld 
of the kingdom to be, and how shall the Messiah do his work? 
work? What the people expected we know. The enemies 
of Israel were to be cast down. Israel was to be delivered 
from want and oppression. She was to have her place 
of rule and glory, and the nations were to bow down be- 
fore her. This was not the picture in the heart of Jesus. 
It was not this that attracted him to John. The kingdom 
of God, or the kingship of God, meant God's rule in the 
hearts of men, as well as the overthrow of all evil and suf- 
fering and wrong in the world. But in one point he agreed 
with them: God was to establish this kingdom and the 
Messiah was to proclaim it and bring it in. And so the 
personal question came at the end of his meditation: How 
was the Messiah to do his work and what was to become 
of him? 

The order of the temptations we do not know. Matthew jesus wm 
and Luke differ. Both Matthew and Luke suggest that the not win the 

people by 

temptation as to the bread came at the end of the forty working 
days. We will put this last and follow Matthew in the n*™ 1 ** 
other two. If such be the order, then the first question 
was this : How shall I announce myself to the people ? If 
I am to preach to them and lead them, I must prove that 
I am the Messiah. Is it not written of the Messiah, that 
Jehovah's angels will keep him, lest he dash his foot against 
a stone? (Psa 91. 11,12,) Why not cast myself down from 
a temple pinnacle before the multitudes? They will see 
that I am the Messiah and follow me. But Jesus' clear 
vision sees that such a plan is of the Evil One. That would 
be tempting God, not trusting him. It would be gaining 



44 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



Jesus will 
not win by 
compromise 



Not self- 
saving, but 
trust and 
obedience 



an outward following, not a spiritual allegiance. Jesus 
refused to be a mere miracle-worker. He used his power to 
help men, not to dazzle them. 

The next question also concerned the method of his work. 
How could God's kingdom be established in the world if 
all the power of the world were against it ? Why not make 
some concessions at the beginning, perhaps make some sort 
of alliance with the regular leaders of the people? Or it 
might be possible to enlist the thousands who were ready- 
to follow a leader if they saw it meant Israel's triumph. 
Once gained, it would be time enough to teach them the 
higher spiritual truth of the kingdom. Many leaders have 
yielded to this temptation of compromise. Not so Jesus. 
He saw that this was simply the prince of the world offer- 
ing him its kingdoms if he would fall down and worship. 
"Thou shalt worship the Lord thy God," was his answer. 
His trust would be absolutely in God, and in God only. 

These temptations must not be conceived as coming at 
one time. They were at the heart of the whole matter which 
filled his mind in those forty days. The third temptation, 
we are told, came at the close of this period. He had for- 
gotten about food. Now he was seized with sudden weak- 
ness and hunger. If he were the Messiah, why not turn 
these stones to bread? What would become of the king- 
dom if the deliverer should perish? Was it not his first 
duty to preserve himself? Here too he conquered. No, 
the first duty was not to preserve himself; it was to do 
the will of God. That in the end is what man must live 
by, not bread but the "word that proceedeth out of the 
mouth of God." It was the same answer as before, obedi- 
ence and trust, and this too Jesus carried through his life. 
He knew his power and he used it, but always for others, 
never for himself. They taunted him when he was on the 
cross, "He saved others; himself he cannot save" (Matt 27. 
42). But that was what he had been doing all his life — 
saving others, not himself. 



THE CALL AND THE TEMPTATION 45 

Three things are made clear by this story. ( 1 ) The spir- 
itual insight of Jesus. How clearly he sees the principles 
at stake. What all other men are saying does not confuse 
him or lead him astray. (2) The moral victory of Jesus. 
Whatever powers may oppose him, whatever danger or ap- 
parent defeat may threaten, he trusts only in God and will 
obey him alone. (3) The human life of Jesus. He is 
victorious in temptation, but he is not untempted. There is 
real fighting here, and it comes not once but again and 
again. 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

Mark 1. 9-13; Matt 3. 13 to 4. 11; Luke 3. 21 to 4. 13. 

Compare carefully the three accounts of the baptism and note 
the differences, observing that Mark is the oldest. Is the tendency 
to literalize figures of speech modern or ancient? 

Are there any moral difficulties in the way of literalizing the story 
of the temptation? Would it have been a real temptation if a 
literal Satan had stood before him, or had carried him physically 
to a temple pinnacle? 

Read the story of Gethsemane in Mark 14. 32-42. Note the na- 
ture of the temptation and the way Jesus met it. Is there any 
analogy in these two points between this and the wilderness temp- 
tation ? 



CHAPTER VI 

THE BEGINNINGS 

The It is not easy to trace the outline of Jesus' life in the 

biographies Gospels. The Gospels are not biographies, and do not 
claim to be. The fourth Gospel states what is the common 
purpose of all : "These are written, that ye may believe 
that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God" (John 20. 31). 
The Gospels are sermons rather than biographies. In them 
the materials are collected which the early church used for 
its preaching. Their interest is to set forth Jesus, that men 
may believe, not to describe the development of his life or 
the progress of his work. The first chapters, it is true, give 
us the story of the beginnings, and at the close there is the 
story of his sufferings and death. But we cannot be sure 
of the order of what comes in between. It is not even 
known how long the period of Jesus' ministry was, and 
scholars have estimated it at from one to three years or more. 
The stage* But while we cannot trace out a biography, there are 

of the life . . , , __ ,. / ' , 

certain questions that must be raised. How did Jesus begin 
his work, and what was his aim? How did he win his 
disciples, and how did he make his enemies? And how, in 
the end, did his death come about? To these questions, the 
Gospel of Mark, the oldest of the four, gives some reply. 
If the suggestions of Mark be followed, five stages in the 
life and work of Jesus may be traced. (1) Jesus begins 
his ministry in Galilee, teaching and ministering to men, 
drawing great multitudes in apparent success, and gath- 
ering a few special followers about him. (2) As the mean- 
ing of his teaching becomes clear a change takes place. The 
people desert him because he does not fulfill their hopes of 
an earthly kingdom. The scribes and Pharisees grow 
bitterly hostile because he attacks their teaching and threat- 
46 



as a teacher 



THE BEGINNINGS 47 

ens their leadership. The little group of his disciples, how- 
ever, through Peter, confesses its faith in him as the Messiah. 
(3) More and more Jesus withdraws from the crowds and 
gives himself to the training of the inner circle of his dis- 
ciples. (4) Finally he turns toward Jerusalem, realizing 
the danger, but convinced that by his death he is to save 
men, and that he will return again and set up the Kingdom. 
(5) His last appeal to the people fails after a brief outburst 
of enthusiasm, and his life closes with his trial and cruci- 
fixion. We shall study the work of Jesus according to this 
outline, taking up his teachings separately. 

How did Jesus begin his work? According to the syn- Jesus begins 
optic Gospels, Jesus began his work quietly and simply as 
a teacher. Why Jesus did this we can understand from 
the last chapter. The temptation story shows that he clearly 
recognized the gulf that lay between his idea of the king- 
dom and that of the people. With the latter, the kingdom 
meant an earthly realm. The Messiah was one that would 
come with splendor and deeds of power, overthrowing their 
foes and establishing this political realm. For Jesus the 
Kingdom was spiritual and ethical, a kingdom of right- 
eousness and love. The great obstacle for them was their 
enemies. The great obstacle for Jesus was ignorance and 
sin. To have announced himself as Messiah would have 
defeated all his higher ends. There was only one thing to 
do. He had fought out the question in the wilderness. He 
must teach this people the true meaning of the Kingdom, 
and he must preach to this people and lead them to peni- 
tence and to a new life with God. 

The fourth Gospel gives a most vivid and interesting Jesus in 
narrative of the beginnings of Jesus' work in Judaea. We 
read here how he meets certain Galilseans among the fol- 
lowers of John the Baptist : Andrew and his brother Peter, 
Philip and probably John, with Nathanael. Such a meet- 
ing would explain how Jesus later called these men in 
Galilee and how they followed him. The later call was not 



Judaea 



48 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

a chance meeting and was not at first sight ; the men them- 
selves were men whom he had thus had opportunity to meet 
before. There are other reasons for thinking that Jesus 
began his work in Judaea. Mark suggests this when he 
says that Jesus came into Galilee "after John was delivered 
up" (Mark I. 14). It seems implied in Jesus' words of 
lament over Jerusalem, "How often would I have gathered 
thy children together" (Luke 13. 34). If Jesus' ministry 
lasted more than one year, it is probable that he would at 
least have attended the yearly passover feasts at Jerusalem, 
jesus begins j t is to Galilee that we must turn, however, and to Mark's 

at Capernaum ' ' 

Gospel, for the first clear and definite account of Jesus' 
public work. Whatever he may have done in Judaea, it is 
Galilee that he chooses for the real field of his labor. The 
city where he begins is not Nazareth, but Capernaum. To 
this he may well have been led because his friends Peter and 
Andrew lived there. But there was a stronger reason. Ca- 
pernaum was a populous city lying on the northwest shore 
of Lake Galilee, being the chief port for the fishermen of 
the lake. Round about it lay the most fruitful and populous 
regions of the province. By it swept the great road that 
led from Damascus to the Mediterranean. Jesus was here 
in the midst of a busy pulsing life. Here he could bring 
his message to the people and from this center he could go 
through the villages of Galilee. It is Capernaum, with the 
nearby cities of Chorazin and Bethsaida, that Jesus declared 
had seen his mighty works (Matt 11. 20-24). 
jesus as "\y e ] iave seen w hy. Jesus would begin his work by teach- 

ing and preaching, and this is the way in which the 
Gospels represent it. -"Jesus came into Galilee, preaching 
the gospel of God" (Mark 1. 14). "He went round 
about the villages teaching" (Mark 6. 6). "He was 
preaching in the synagogues of Galilee" (Luke 4. 44). 
The scribe, or teacher, was a familiar figure with the Jews. 
Such a life on Jesus' part would excite no wonder. But 
the people very soon saw with wonder the difference be- 



prophet 



THE BEGINNINGS 49 

tween Jesus and the scribes. The teaching of the scribes 
all looked to the past, to the law that God had once given 
and to the traditions that had been built up around it. Jesus 
spoke directly out of his own heart. "And they were as- 
tonished at his teaching; for he taught them as having au- 
thority" (Mark 1. 22). And so they called him a prophet, 
a John or an Elijah (Mark 6. 15 ; 8. 28). They rejoiced to 
think that God had thus come to them again (Luke 7. 16). 
Even after his death it was as "a prophet mighty in deed 
and word" that his disciples spoke of him (Luke 24. 19). 
His relation to the prophets was evident in his teaching. 
It was not the priestly and legal side of the Old Testa- 
ment that appeared in him, but the prophetic. Their dis- 
regard of form and ritual, their appeal to conscience, their 
emphasis on righteousness, all reappear in his teaching. 

And yet Jesus was not simply a prophet even in his Jesus more 
teaching. The prophets had the special word which was pr0 phet 
given to them to speak. They came with a "Thus saith 
the Lord," and spoke only as commanded. Jesus' message 
is not simply a word given to him. It is a spirit and a 
life within him. Out of the fullness of that life he speaks. 
It is no formal message. It is the giving of a life. He 
gives it in the synagogue or by the wayside, to the throng- 
ing multitudes, to the little group of his friends, or to some 
single soul. He can speak with the passion and power of 
the prophet, but he can stop to comfort a poor woman or 
greet a child. And the difference is even more plain in his 
life. He is more than a messenger ; he is a neighbor, a com- 
rade, a friend. He is not the stern executor of fiery judgment 
that John saw. He can stop to caress the children in the 
marketplace. He has time for a wedding feast, or to meet 
Levi's friends at a dinner party, or to rest at the fireside 
of his intimates. He drew the line at no class. They 
criticized him because he accepted table hospitality even 
from "sinners." On the other hand, he was not afraid of 
the homes of the rich. But we must remember one other 



5° 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The call of 
the first 
disciples 



Jesus and the 
synagogue 



In the 

synagogue at 
Nazareth 



thing as we picture this ministry that was so different 
from that of rabbi or priest or even prophet: while Jesus 
lived this common life, he never suffered it to be common- 
place. He touched all this life only to bless it, and his 
greatest blessing was to light it up everywhere with the 
divine life and meaning. 

Mark pictures to us with vivid detail the first days at 
Capernaum. We can understand this detailed knowledge 
when we remember the probability that it was from Peter 
himself that Mark obtained this story. Its first incident is 
the call of the two pairs of brothers, Simon Peter and An- 
drew, James and John, all of them fishermen. They had 
been among those that had answered to John's call, but they 
had seen in Jesus the One greater than John. Now that 
he was ready to take up his public work, they were ready 
to follow him. 

The Sabbath at Capernaum comes next. Luke tells 
us that Jesus was accustomed to go to the synagogue on 
the Sabbath (4. 16). The custom may not only have been 
for the sake of worship, but because the synagogue worship 
afforded him, as later on with Paul, an opportunity to give 
his message. No institution is connected more closely with 
the beginnings of Christianity than the synagogue. Its 
worship was simple and democratic. It laid stress upon 
teaching, as does the Protestant Church with its pulpit and 
with its Sunday school. It was no mere place of ritual, 
like the temple. At a stated place in the service there was 
opportunity for exhortation or for explanation of the Scrip- 
tures that had been read. Any one might be called upon 
here, but especially a visiting teacher or scribe. Here 
Jesus spoke and astounded them because he did not quote 
Rabbi This or Rabbi That, but ''taught them as having 
authority." 

What Jesus' message was Mark does not record. Luke, 
however, reports a synagogue address which Jesus gave 
in his home town of Nazareth (Luke 4. 16-22). This must 



THE BEGINNINGS 51 

have occurred later in Jesus' ministry. We take it up 
here because it gives another synagogue scene and because 
in it Jesus speaks of the aims of his ministry. We can 
easily imagine the little village synagogue crowded with 
Jesus' neighbors and boy-time friends, eager to see and 
hear the young man whose teachings and doings had made 
such a stir. From the roll of the prophet Isaiah which is 
given to him Jesus chooses his lesson. The beautiful pas- 
sage is the confession of his purpose, and descriptive of the 
work which filled his days at this time : 

The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, 

Because he anointed me to preach good tidings to the poor : 

He hath sent me to proclaim release to the captives, 

And recovering of sight to the blind, 

To set at liberty them that are bruised, 

To proclaim the acceptable year of the Lord. 

Jesus' message begins like that of John. First comes Theg< 
the good news, the word which we translate "gospel" : The news 
longed-for kingdom is at the door, the acceptable year is 
at hand, the rule of God is about to be established. So 
near at hand did he feel it that he could say, a little later, 
"There are some here of them that stand by, who shall in 
no wise taste of death till they see the kingdom of God 
come with power" (Mark 9. 1). Men were to repent, as 
John declared, but they were to do much more; they were 
to live like children of their Father by being pure of heart 
and kindly and merciful in deed. This teaching we must 
study more fully later. The deeds of healing which Mark 
records in this story of that first Capernaum Sabbath will 
occupy the next chapter. 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

Mark 1. 14-28; Luke 4. 14-22; 5. i-n; John 1. 35-51. 

Locate upon the map Capernaum, Chorazin, and Bethsaida. 
Using the scale of miles, estimate their distance apart. Note the 
relative position of Nazareth to these three and its approximate 
distance. 



52 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

Look carefully through the first five chapters of Mark and note 
(i) the number of passages which refer to Jesus as teaching, and 
(2) the number which refer to the crowds of people that came to 
him. Make a list of the passages in both cases. 

Make a list of the different places and conditions in which Jesus 
taught as referred to in these five chapters. 

Read carefully the accounts of the call of the first disciples as 
given by Mark, Luke, and John in the references above. Are they 
necessarily exclusive of each other? 



CHAPTER VII 
THE MINISTRY OF HEALING 

We have seen that, like John the Baptist, Jesus was a j eS usin 
preacher, and he put his work of preaching and teaching contrast with 
first. But that was not all of Jesus' work, and a study of 
their lives shows the marked contrast between the two men. 
Jesus himself notes the difference in quoting the perverse 
criticism of their common enemies : "John is come neither 
eating nor drinking, and ye say, He hath a demon. The Son 
of man is come eating and drinking, and ye say, Behold, a 
gluttonous man and a winebibber, a friend of publicans and 
sinners !" Back of this caricature lay the truth. John was 
an ascetic and lived apart. He was "a voice crying in the 
wilderness." Jesus was a man among men. He had open 
eyes for the beauties of nature : he notes sunset and storm- 
clouds and lightning flash, the sprouting wheat and ripening 
grain, and all the life of out-of-doors. Above all, the 
world of human life appeals to him. He has his close 
friends. He craves companions. He accepts hospitality. 
He is found even at the table of the rich; indeed, to one 
rich man's home he invites himself (Luke 19. 5). He goes 
to the quiet places for prayer, but he comes back to the 
crowded ways to live. He chooses busy Capernaum, not 
little Nazareth, populous Decapolis and not the wilderness. 
We find him by the lakeside with the fishermen, at the 
customhouse, in the market place or the synagogue; and 
everywhere he is talking with men. 

Two reasons lie back of this difference between Jesus The reasons 
and John. One lies in the spirit of Jesus, his broad hu- 1^^ e 
inanity, his intense sympathy. The Gospels show this sym- 
pathy again and again : when the sick are brought to him, 
when he sees the people scattered as sheep without a shep- 
53 



54 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



Demon 
possession 



Three 
healings 



herd, when he flames in anger against the Pharisees because 
these leaders are only leading folks astray, "blind leaders 
of the blind." He will not let the little children be pushed 
aside. He will not send the multitudes away hungry. He 
hears the cry of the blind man by the roadside despite the 
crowds. The second reason lay in Jesus' conception of 
his work. John was the herald. Jesus was the Messiah. 
The kingdom was already present in him, if only in its 
beginning. Men's sins were being forgiven and their sick- 
ness healed. That was what the rule of God meant, and 
that was what he was come for, "not to be ministered unto, 
but to minister." And that was why he pointed the dis- 
ciples whom John sent to these works (Matt n. 2-6). Thus 
both Jesus' spirit of sympathy and his idea of his work 
impelled him to a ministry far broader than that of John. 

The ministry of service may be considered under two 
heads. There is, first, the ministry of healing, in which 
Jesus dealt with demon possession and other forms of sick- 
ness ; and there is the ministry of forgiveness which shows 
Jesus in his relation to sinners. 

The Old Testament has little to say about spirits, evil 
or good. The New Testament world seems to be filled 
with them. The belief in them came from without, from 
Persia, in the last couple of centuries before Christ. Men 
were thought to be in constant danger of having evil spirits 
enter them. Their presence was the explanation of special 
forms of disease such as seemed to demand some unusual 
cause. Among these were particularly mental and nervous 
disorders, like insanity and epilepsy, as well as diseases 
like paralysis and leprosy. There seem to have been cases 
also of moral degeneracy, where we read of unclean spirits. 

Mark's Gospel gives us three typical cases. The first 
occurs in the Capernaum synagogue on that first Sunday. 
This may have been a man of evil life, whom Jesus aroused 
by the power of his appeal. The case served to stir the 
people and spread Jesus' fame at the very beginning. The 



THE MINISTRY OF HEALING 55 

second is the man in the Gerasene country across the lake 
from Capernaum, a case of violent insanity, the poor wretch 
living as an outcast among the tombs (Mark 5. 1-20). The 
third is a case of epilepsy, that of a boy whom the disciples 
had first tried in vain to heal. 

Such cases of demoniac healing were an undoubted part Forjesus 
of Jesus' work. We cannot, of course, be sure of all details, onfy'^e* 5 
As to Jesus' own conception we cannot tell. So far overcome 
as ordinary knowledge is concerned, we find him else- 
where sharing the opinions of his time. In any case his 
religious insight here is true. The evil spirits are here only 
to be overcome. There is no room for the superstition and 
fear which usually goes with the belief in demons, only 
the perfect confidence in the power and goodness of his 
Father. 

The same day at Capernaum brings to Tesus the second J esus and 

\ , 1 ..,,., -r, the sick 

class of the needy to whom he ministered, the sick. Return- 
ing home after the synagogue service, he heals Peter's 
mother-in-law, whom he finds ill with a fever. This, joined 
to the case of the demoniac, rouses the city. No sooner 
is the sun set and the Sabbath over, according to Jewish 
reckoning, than they begin bringing the sick to the door of 
Peter's house for Jesus to heal. Mark does not say that 
he healed them all, but that "he healed many that were sick 
with divers diseases and cast out many demons." 

It was enough to still further move the city. Jesus had Jesus will 
no need to fear a lack of following. A great ministry amerehealer 
seemed to be opening to him at Capernaum. But Jesus 
judged the situation differently. Here were the elements of 
danger that he had fought against in his temptation. It 
was not a spiritual following won by his message. It was 
a popular and outward success won by these signs of power. 
And Jesus puts it aside. He will not become a worker of 
signs. His great work is not here. It is to bring to men's 
minds a vision of God, to their hearts a new spirit in prepara- 
tion for the coming Kingdom. The crowds that come early 



56 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

in the morning do not find him. He has been meeting this 
new crisis, as he met the first, in a desert place in prayer. 
His decision is ready when the disciples find him: "Let us 
go elsewhere into the next towns, that I may preach there 
also; for to this end came I forth" (Mark i. 38). He does 
not cease his ministry of healing. He is moved with com- 
passion when the leper comes. But he charges him sternly 
to tell no man about it (Mark 1. 40-45). 
The healings These stories of healing have been the cause of a great 
deal of discussion. Scholars of all kinds to-day are gener- 
ally inclined to admit them. They are so deeply embedded 
in the gospel narratives that they could hardly be taken out 
without giving up the entire gospel story. How they were 
wrought it is neither necessary nor possible for us to 
determine. It is important to notice that Jesus performed 
these cures out of sympathy for men, and not to atract men 
or win their faith. He did not want a following that was 
due to signs and wonders. He wanted a moral and spiritual 
faith and insight. Such a faith is still of most importance 
with his followers. 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

Read and compare the three stories of the healings of demoniacs 
found in Mark 1. 23-27; 5. 1-20; 9. 14-29. 

Does Jesus' word of healing seem to have been conditioned by 
what he found in others? Illustrate answer from following pas- 
sages: Luke 7. 1-10; Mark 5. 21-43; 10. 46-52; Matt 15. 21-28. 

Note Jesus' motive in this ministry as given Matt 9. 35-38. 

Make a list of the passages in the first eight chapters of Mark 
which refer to the crowds about Jesus, noting the indications as 
to the reasons for his popularity. 

What was Jesus' attitude as to the demand for miracles, and 
his estimate of their value in his work? Read Matt 12. 38-42 and 
note Mark 5. 43; 7. 36; 8. 26. 



CHAPTER VIII 
THE MINISTRY OF FORGIVENESS 

There was another class of people with whom Jesus came Jesus and 
in contact at the very beginning of the Capernaum ministry. the smners 
They are referred to as the sinners. Nothing in Jesus' 
ministry caused more comment and more criticism than his 
relations with these people, and nothing is more character- 
istic of his spirit. 

The word "sinners" in these references is not used in The Pharisaic 
exactly our sense. We must not be misled by the fact that religion 
harlots and publicans are sometimes specially mentioned in and of sin 
this connection. By sinners are not always meant the 
morally reprobate. The idea of sin depends upon the idea 
of religion. With the Jewish leaders at this time, religion 
meant the keeping of a great sum of rules which touched 
every part of a Jew's life. These were supposed to be the 
laws of Moses, all taken from the Old Testament. As a 
matter of fact, they consisted for the most part of the 
"traditions of the elders," the endless rules on all subjects 
that had been deduced from these laws and built up around 
them. In large part they centered about the idea of cere- 
monial purity. Everything was divided into clean and 
unclean: food, vessels, people, acts, and objects. Minute 
rules governed all these points as well as the endless routine 
of sacrifices, gifts, washings, bathings, prayers, penances, 
and the like. 

To live this life according to the. highest standards of ^"^ 
that time required knowledge and leisure and money. The required 
scribes were the experts in this field, and so are sometimes 
called lawyers. It took leisure because it required time to 
fulfill such a round of duties. It took money because it 
interfered with ordinary business. That was especially true 
57 



58 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



Jesus' 
attitude 



Jesus for- 
gives the 
paralytic 



in Galilee, where there were so many non-Jews, to mingle 
with whom meant impurity. The Pharisees were the strict 
keepers of the law. As such they were held in the highest 
esteem by the common people. This esteem they returned 
with contempt (John 7. 49). The poor Jew in our large 
cities to-day is handicapped in just the same way if he is 
strictly orthodox. Many of these work only five days in 
the week. They will not work on Saturday and cannot 
work on Sunday, and sometimes they are driven to the 
pedlar's pushcart because men will not hire them in other 
occupations for only five days. 

Of course the sinners included also the immoral. Among 
these the tax collectors especially stood forth. The tax- 
gatherer is not popular even to-day. He was doubly 
hateful to the Jews. In part the Roman system of 
farming out taxes was responsible. The contractor for a 
given province paid the government a fixed sum and 
squeezed this sum, and as much more as he could get, from 
the people. His officers, or agents, were the publicans 
whom we meet in the Gospels. Some occupied higher 
positions, like Zacchseus, and were correspondingly rich. 
Some were of the rank and file, as, apparently, Matthew. 
Aside from their exactions, the Jews hated these because 
they were renegades, men who took sides for hire with the 
hated Roman master. 

For all these people the heart of Jesus stirred with sym- 
pathy. They were as sheep not having a shepherd. He 
felt a special mission just to these classes, and he asserts it 
again and again. "I came not to call the righteous, but 
sinners." "The Son of man is come to seek and to save 
that which was lost." He felt himself sent to save "the lost 
sheep of the house of Israel," "to preach good tidings to the 
poor." 

Mark tells us in his second chapter of the beginning of 
this ministry. The crowds who followed Jesus because of 
the report of his healings had driven him out into the 



THE MINISTRY OF FORGIVENESS 59 

"desert places," that is, the untilled country. Now he 
comes back quietly to Peter's home in Capernaum, ap- 
parently for rest. But the people discover him and fill the 
house and the street. A poor paralytic, brought by his 
friends, can get to Jesus only by being let down through 
the roof. Jesus' first word to him, however, is not one of 
healing but of forgiveness. That seemed to Jesus the deeper 
need. The word stirred the ire of his enemies. What right 
had he to forgive sins ? 

A later event angered them still more. Situated on a jesusandthe 
great highway near the border of Herod's territory, Caper- C ^^^ m 
naum was an important place for the collection of customs, 
and contained a good many publicans. One of these, named 
Levi, had evidently heard Jesus' teaching and in turn had 
been noted by Jesus. Passing by the customhouse, Jesus 
calls him and invites him to follow, apparently to become 
one of the little circle of his regular companions. Not only 
did Levi, or Matthew, as he is also called, follow him at 
once, but he made a supper for Jesus, to which he invited 
his friends. All of them, of course, were "sinners," people 
who did not even make a pretense of keeping the cere- 
monial law ; many of them were hated publicans like 
Matthew himself. The strict Jew would not have spoken 
to such men. To sit down at table with them was not 
only to scorn all the conventions of society, but to flout 
the laws which were the very essence of religion for these 
Pharisees. But Jesus saw in this his opportunity. 

Luke records a similar incident, where Jesus sought out a chief 
one of these men. It is the story of Zacchseus, a "chief publ,can 
publican" and a rich man. The time is the latter part of 
Jesus' ministry, the occasion is his passage through Jericho, 
and Jesus does not simply accept an invitation, but selects 
the house of this despised publican for his stay (Luke 19. 
1-10). 

The Gospels show us that a large part of Jesus' ministry The ministry 
was connected with these people. Luke especially brings 



6o NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

out this side of Jesus' work. It was not simply that Jesus 
saw their need and gave himself to them ; these people in a 
special manner turned to him. He found with them the 
response which the scribes and Pharisees refused. John 
had had the same experience (Luke 7. 29, 30). The religion 
of formalism had left these people unmoved, or else they 
were of the poor who could not keep these laws. They 
had accepted the contempt of the Pharisees as a right ver- 
dict, and there was no hope in their hearts. Jesus' message 
of God and righteousness and repentance pricked their 
conscience. At the same time he stirred them with hope. 
They were to him not "people of the earth," but brothers. 
He made them feel that God cared for each one of them. 
He taught them to look up and say, "Father." 
The response The response of these people to his ministry stirred the 
heart of Jesus deeply. Luke brings this out in an incident 
he relate's (7. 36-50). Jesus had been invited to the home 
of a Pharisee, when a woman of the city, evidently a 
notorious character, came in and stood behind the couch 
where he was reclining at table. She was one whom Jesus' 
word of forgiveness had reached and to whom it had brought 
a new life. Moved with gratitude, she had bought a flask 
of ointment, and now, weeping and wiping his feet with her 
hair, she poured the ointment upon them. His host, Simon 
by name, paid no attention to this act of devotion which 
supplied his own omission of courtesy, in that he had not 
washed the feet of his guest. Simon saw only that this 
was a sinner and that Jesus permitted her defiling touch. 
He could not believe that Jesus knew what she was. Jesus' 
answer was the story of the lender and the two debtors. 
Like the debtor to whom the heavy debt had been remitted, 
so these people showed a depth of gratitude which he had 
not found with people of higher standing. He found even 
more than this : a spirit of humility and openness and desire 
which was so lacking with the Pharisees (Luke 18. 9-14)- 
He did not minimize their past disobedience, yet in the end 



THE MINISTRY OF FORGIVENESS 61 

it was they who went into the kingdom of God and not the 
piously protesting Pharisees (Matt 21. 28-32). The parable 
of the king's wedding feast sets forth Jesus' own experience : 
the invitation is refused by the people of standing to whom 
it goes, and it is the poor and maimed and blind and lame 
that at last come in (Luke 14. 15-24; Matt 22. 1-10). 

This entire ministry of Jesus, in its teaching and healing j esu s as the 
and forgiving, is the beginning and source of that marvelous ideaI and 

, r 1 • 11-11 1 • • inspiration 

development of education and philanthropy and missions f service 
which has marked the history of Christianity. The Jews 
laid great stress upon alms, but with them it was just one 
more precept to be kept. Their interest was in keeping the 
law; Jesus' center of interest was not in the law but in his 
brother. Nietzsche has criticized Christianity from this 
point of view, calling it the religion of the submerged, the 
morality of the weak. He felt that there was a certain 
superiority or contempt toward the weak in all this pity. 
That was a misconception. The ethics of Jesus was that 
of the strong, only not of the strong living for themselves 
but for others. In his service was no spirit of condescension 
or scorn. Like our modern social service, which he has 
inspired, it was democratic; back of it lay the reverence 
for men as his brothers, as sons of the Father. 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

Mark 2. 1-17; Luke 18. 9-14; Matt 21. 28-32; Luke 14. 15-24; 
Matt 22. 1-10. 

Read Luke 7. 36-50 and compare with the story told in Mark 14. 3-9 
and Matt 26. 6-13. Give reasons for or against the opinion that 
these refer to the same event. 

As against the identification, note the characteristic words of 
Jesus in both instances; state the difference in their point and 
meaning. 

Carefully look through chapters 4 to 8 of Luke, making a list 
of the deeds of healing and forgiving. Do they warrant the 
assertion that the third Gospel shows a special interest in the poor 
and suffering and outcasts? 



CHAPTER IX 



THE MASTER TEACHER 



The place 
of teaching 



The faith of 
a teacher 



It is as a teacher first of all that Jesus appears in his 
ministry. He began his work in this manner, and neither 
success nor defeat turned him aside from this course. When 
the crowds left him he devoted himself to his disciples, but 
his work was still that of teaching. It is as a teacher in 
the temple that he spends his last days at Jerusalem, making 
a final appeal to the people. His last night is given to his 
disciples in instruction. 

The parable of the sower sets forth Jesus' faith as a 
teacher, which he passes on to the disciples for their en- 
couragement (Mark 4. 1-9). He was like one with good 
seed, scattering it wherever he went. He saw the hard 
hearts upon which it fell in vain, and the shallow hearts of 
those who responded with quick enthusiasm only to turn 
as quickly away. None of these things moved him. He 
knew that there was life in the seed, in his message, and 
that it was his work to sow ; and he saw the future harvest 
of thirty and sixty and a hundredfold. Jesus wrote no 
book. He established no church, and we have no record that 
he gave orders for its establishment. He was a sower. He 
scattered his living words constantly, prodigally. He gave 
them forth to all men, on all occasions, to eager throngs in 
Galilee, to hostile crowds at Jerusalem, to his little company 
of followers, to children in the market place, to folks met 
casually by the wayside. Only a few comparatively have 
come down to us, but they have justified his faith. These 
words, flung out upon the air like scattered seed, have lived 
on in the hearts of men and the lives of nations to comfort, 
to guide, to cast down, to lift up, to transform. And never 
62 



THE MASTER TEACHER 63 

before have they been so closely studied, so widely spread, 
or so mighty in their influence as to-day. 

The first mark of Jesus' teaching is its freedom and Authority and 
authority. It is truth welling up directly from life. That m epen ence 
is seen not merely in Jesus' attitude toward tradition, but 
toward the Old Testament as well. These Scriptures were 
indeed part of his inner life. In his moments of deepest need, 
in the wilderness temptation and on the cross, their words 
come to his lips. He quoted them too as authority against 
his foes. And yet back of this we find an attitude of inde- 
pendence and sometimes of criticism. There are several 
ways in which this attitude appears: (1) Jesus was not 
simply dependent upon the Old Testament. He proclaimed 
the God of Abraham and Isaac and Jacob; but this was a 
living God, and Jesus saw him in the world and knew him 
in his own life, and therefore was not limited to the record 
of the past. (2) Jesus did not take from the Old Testa- 
ment indifferently; he discriminated and chose. He pre- 
ferred the prophetic writings, especially the second part 
of Isaiah, Deuteronomy, and the Psalms. There were large 
portions which he left wholly to one side. (3) He set 
scripture against scripture. He went back of the Mosaic 
law of divorce (Deut 24. 1) to assert a higher law that was 
at the beginning (Mark 10. 2-12). (4) He definitely set 
aside, upon his own authority, certain Old Testament pre- 
cepts or laws. "Ye have heard that it was said, An eye for 
an eye, and a tooth for a tooth ; but I say unto you, Resist 
not him that is evil" (Matt 5. 38, 39). In his own practice 
he disregarded ceremonial laws, and not merely those of 
the rabbis but of the Old Testament also. When called to 
account he simply declared, that it was not what went into 
a man's body but what came out of his heart that made him 
unclean (Mark 7. 1-23). By this word he calmly set aside 
entire sections of the law which the people regarded as 
holy and unchangeable. And the evangelist points out this 
conclusion (Mark 7. 19). (5) Finally, he recognized that 



64 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



How Jesus 
fulfilled 



The teaching 
occasional 
and vital 



Teaching by 
pictures 



a new day had come with him. He revered the old, but a 
better was now at hand; "one greater than the temple is 
here" (Matt 12. 6). The new wine had come; why should 
it be put in the old wine-skins that could no longer hold it ? 
If the old forms interfere with the new spirit, let the old 
forms drop off (Mark 2. 18-22). That, indeed, was what 
Jesus did. He did not argue against the old. He simply 
let it slough off. 

One passage in Matthew seems to contradict this inter- 
pretation (5. 17-20). There Jesus seems to assert that 
every least letter of the law must stand forever. Against 
Jesus' clear and consistent teaching and conduct this cannot 
stand. Verses 18 and 19 may have been inserted, as some 
think. There is a more probable interpretation: that Jesus 
had been criticized as one who was destroying all law and 
overturning all authority, that he responded by saying: 
"You are the destroyers of the law, not I. I am fulfilling 
it by standing for its real spirit. There is not one truth 
that I am overturning. But unless your righteousness 
exceeds that of the letter, you shall never enter' the 
Kingdom." 

Jesus' method of teaching was not systematic but occa- 
sional. He was not a college professor lecturing upon his 
subject, taking up one doctrine after another. He walked 
through the world of men and brought the truth to men 
as he saw their need. He saw men anxious and troubled, 
and showed them the birds and the flowers for which God 
was caring (Matt 6. 25-34), but he never sat down to give 
his disciples a lecture upon the divine immanence or provi- 
dence. Two of his disciples came with their petty ambitions ; 
he made it the occasion for his great lesson on the meaning 
of life as a chance to give, not to get (Matt 20. 20-28). 
Jesus' teaching was vital, practical. He was interested in 
life, not in ideas (Luke 13. 1-5). 

The materials for his teaching Jesus took from the life 
of the people to whom he spoke. He was popular in the 



THE MASTER TEACHER 65 

best sense of the word. In pedagogical wisdom he was a 
teacher of the highest order. He spoke the language that 
people knew. He took their common world and made it 
teach his highest lessons. All the life of that day looks 
out upon us from his pages. We see the world of nature : 
the glowing sunset that promises fair weather, the red of 
the morning that suggests the storm, the lightning that 
flashes from end to end of heaven, the bright flowers and 
the quickly fading grass, the slow-growing grain, the field 
where wheat and tares are mixed together, the fig tree 
showing its first tender green, the vineyard ready for the 
gathering, and the bending heads of the rich harvest that 
promises its hundredfold. We see the living creatures : the 
birds that have their nests, the foxes with their holes, the 
carrion birds gathering where the carcass is, the hungry 
flock settling down on the new-sown field, the little dead 
sparrow whom God notices, though men do not. We see 
men busy at their daily tasks: the farmer, the merchant, 
the landowner, the judge. How many different characters 
he shows us ! — the poor widow and the unjust judge, the 
faithful shepherd, the poor beggar, the successful farmer 
whom Jesus brands as fool. No pictures are more sug- 
gestive than those that show us the home and the children: 
the mother kneading her dough, the windowless house where 
you must search long for your lost coin, the closed house 
where the father and children are in bed, the picture of the 
children about the table with the dogs underneath, the 
evening hour with the lamp upon the stand giving light to 
all in the house. And the children! We see them busily 
playing their games of funeral or wedding as they might 
to-day, or coming hungry to their father, sure that they 
will get bread and not a stone, or placed once more by 
Jesus in the midst to preach the great lesson of the open, 
trustful heart. There are shadows too: the laborers that 
wait in the market place and have no one to hire them, 
that toil all day and then must serve their master at night 



66 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



Effectiveness 
and art 



The forms of 
the picture 
teaching 



before they can eat, or that feel the cruel scourge for some 
misdeed, the beggar lying at the gate while the feast goes 
on within, the debtor on his way to prison, the criminal 
bearing his own cross to the place of execution. 

Such teaching was of the highest effectiveness. It comes 
to us, indeed, from another world and a long-past age, yet 
so simple is its form and so human the relations it uses that 
every age since then has heard it as its own. There are 
vivid pictures, pregnant phrases, that have long since passed 
into common speech: salt of the earth, whited sepulchers, 
wolves in sheep's clothing, grapes from thorns, the house 
divided against itself. Jesus is an artist. There is a beauty 
in these words that neither the years of verbal tradition 
nor the loss through translation has destroyed. In beauty 
of phrase, in economy of line, in their picture language, 
and, above all, in the perfection of their thought, we have 
here poetry and painting at its highest. There is a finality 
of form which marks the highest art. And yet we hardly 
dare to use that word, which suggests effort and thought 
of effect, for everything here is free, natural, spontaneous. 

We have already seen how much of Jesus' teaching is 
figurative, and how he takes it from the life all about him. 
He took this common world which men knew and made them 
see the spiritual truths about which they were so blind. 
We may distinguish three forms in this picture teaching of 
Jesus : likenesses, examples, and parables. 

First come the likenesses. Often the comparison is 
implied, not expressed. "Ye are the salt of the earth." "Ye 
are the light of the world." "A city set on a hill cannot be 
hid." "No man putteth new wine into old wine-skins." 
"Do men gather grapes of thorns?" Sometimes the com- 
parison is stated, as in the picture of the perverse children. 
He found people like some children at play. Their comrades 
propose that they play wedding, and begin to pipe, but they 
do not want to play wedding and so will not dance to the 
music. And when their friends offer to play funeral and 



THE MASTER TEACHER 67 

start to wailing, instead of beating their breasts and playing 
mourner they refuse this game also. John came as an 
ascetic ; they would not hear him but said, "He has a demon." 
Jesus came and joined in all the life of men; him too they 
would not hear, he was a glutton and winebibber (Matt 
11. 16-19). 

The examples form another class. These are usually Examples 
classed with the parables. They are really impressive illus- 
trations setting forth some Christian principle. There are 
four of these: The good Samaritan (Luke 10. 29-37) 5 the 
Pharisee and the publican (Luke 18. 9-14) ; the rich fool 
(Luke 12. 16-21) ; and Dives and Lazarus (Luke 16. 19-31). 

The parables form the third class. The parable is an Parables 
invented tale like a fable, except that the parable is some- 
thing that might naturally happen. There are no talking 
animals in a parable as in the fables of vEsop. The purpose 
of the parable is to persuade or explain. It may be defined 
as an argument or explanation from analogy, in which a 
natural happening in a lower sphere is made to show the 
truth in a higher sphere. The parable of the prodigal son 
is such an argument. Jesus tells the story of a father who 
forgives the returning son that has done wrong, instead of 
casting him out. Men could understand and appreciate this 
incident. Jesus transfers it to a higher realm and says : 
That is the way with our Father in heaven. 

Few parts of the teaching of Jesus have been more mis- The mistake 
used than the parables. The common mistake has been to ofaUegonzm s 
treat them as if they were allegories. In Spenser's Faerie 
Queene and Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress we have good 
examples of the allegory. An allegory is an extended simile. 
Every figure or character in the allegory represents some 
spiritual fact or truth. It is like two lines running parallel 
with point corresponding to point. The parable is like two 
curves which touch at only one point; it is an argument 
usually meant to prove or illustrate just one thing. The 
parable of the prodigal son proves one truth — God is 



of legalizing 



68 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

merciful as the best fathers of earth are. It is a mistake, 
then, to use it as is commonly done to prove a hundred 
other points, to find some hidden spiritual meaning in the 
swine and the husks and the strangers, the robe, the ring, 
the shoes, and all the rest. 
The mistake The other mistake that has been made in interpreting 
the teaching of Jesus has been the attempt to make of it a 
set of rules or laws. Jesus had no thought of bringing laws 
to men. His whole teaching is a protest against a religion 
of laws. He was interested in the life of men, in leading 
men into the rich life with God which he himself possessed. 
To this end his teachings are designed to stir repentance, 
to quicken desire, to bring a higher vision, to lead men to 
decision for God and to trust in him. Like a good physician, 
he does not prescribe the same for every man. He calls 
Levi to follow him, but the Gadarene demoniac who wanted 
to follow him he sends to his home. Zacchseus and Lazarus 
may keep their home and their wealth; the rich young 
ruler he bids sell all and follow him. 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

Mark 2. 18-22; 4. 1-9; 7. 1-23; 10. 2-12; Matt 5. 17-48. 

Using the marginal references of the Standard Revision, make 
a list of Old Testament quotations and allusions found in the 
account of the temptation and in the Sermon on the Mount. 

In the first five instances of likenesses given in this chapter, 
write out the comparison in full. 

What is the religious principle illustrated in the four examples 
given above. 

Give the argument or analogy of the parables found in the 
following passages: Matt 7. 24-27; 13. 44; 25. 14-30. 



CHAPTER X 
THE KINGDOM OF GOD 

"The kingdom of God" is a phrase that meets us through- The interest 
out the Gospels. As we have seen, John began with this Kingdom 
message and Jesus made it his own. Both declared that the 
expected Kingdom was near at hand. The same thought 
was in the minds of all the people. They were ready to 
ask of John as of Jesus, "Is he the Messiah who will bring 
in the Kingdom?" Jesus' deeds of healing stirred their 
expectation: "Perhaps this is he." And when, at last, he 
entered Jerusalem the multitude was ready to shout, "Blessed 
is he that cometh in the name of the Lord: Blessed is the 
kingdom that cometh, the kingdom of our father David" 
(Mark n. 9, 10). The people were especially interested 
at this time. Rome's rule was becoming intolerable. The 
deliverance must be near at hand. 

The thought of the Kingdom was an essential part of * ts p }™ e ™ 
Jewish belief. It sprang from their faith in God. It really 
meant the kingship of God, God's rule. The earth was the 
Lord's. If there was evil in it, if his people were oppressed, 
that could only be for a time. The day must come when he 
would overthrow every power and rule himself. "And in 
the days of those kings shall the God of heaven set up a 
kingdom which shall never be destroyed. And the kingdom 
. . . shall be given to the people of the saints of the Most 
High" (Dan 2. 44; 7. 27). Here was the heart of their 
hope — the rule of God meant for them the rule of Israel. 
God would overthrow her enemies and set Israel upon the 
throne. 

Jesus too believed that the rule of God was coming in the Jesus' idea of 
earth, that there would be a new world without evil and * e d 2£™ 
oppression and wrong. He proclaimed the good news that of God 
this rule was near at hand. And yet the kingdom of God in 
69 



;o NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

Jesus' teaching had a different meaning. Nothing is said 
about Rome, nothing of the overthrow of Israel's enemies 
and her triumphant rule. What he has to say does not 
concern men as Jews, but men as men. He even bids them 
render to Caesar the things that are Caesar's. He declares 
that many shall come from the east and the west and sit 
down in the Kingdom while Jews themselves are cast out. 
The real difference lay in the different thought of God. If 
the Kingdom means the rule of God, then it is the nature of 
God that decides what that rule shall be. For the Jews 
Jehovah was King of Israel and his kingship meant Israel's 
rule. For Jesus the King was Father, holy and loving, and 
Father of all men. The rule of such a God could not mean 
armies and thrones ; it must mean the reign of righteousness 
and peace and good will which Jesus set forth as the heart 
of God. 
The Kingdom F or Jesus the kingdom of God was, first of all, a gift, the 

as the highest ... . , , , , T . ,., , 

good highest good that man could desire. It is like the treasure 

which the man found in the field, for whose sake he sold 
all that he had that he might buy the field. It is like the 
pearl to gain which the merchant parted with all that he 
possessed (Matt 13. 44-46). Having this, everything else 
would be added to a man (Matt 6. 33). At its highest this 
treasure means to see God (Matt 5. 8). For that reason the 
first gift of God's rule is forgiveness by which we are 
admitted to God's fellowship (Luke 1. jj ; 24. 47). Else- 
where Jesus uses the word "life," or the term "eternal life," 
as meaning the same as the Kingdom, as will be seen by 
comparing Mark 10. 17, 30 with 10. 23 and Matt 7. 14 with 
7. 21. For Jesus the rule of God was the great hope of men ; 
it meant the overcoming of all evil, the coming of all good. 
For that reason the message is called gospel, "good news." 
Matt 11. 25-30, one of the most beautiful passages in the 
Gospels, breathes this spirit of joy, while at the same time 
its closing verses suggest some of the blessings of the 
Kingdom. 



THE KINGDOM OF GOD 71 

But the coming rule of God meant also a challenge and The Kingdom 
a test. Who were the men who could meet such a God? nghteous- 
The test that Jesus puts is a very simple one. It is the test ness » repent- 
of obedience springing from a true life within. The test of fulness 
the tree is the fruit. "Not everyone that saith unto me, 
Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of heaven; but 
he that doeth the will of my Father who is in heaven" 
(Matt 7. 15-23). Only such a life would stand in that day 
(Matt 7. 24-27). In another passage Jesus tells more par- 
ticularly what this obedience means, that it is the service of 
our fellow men in their need, no matter who they are 
(Matt 25. 31-46). Such obedience is not simply a prepara- 
tion for the Kingdom ; it is of the essence of the Kingdom, 
for the rule of God means the righteousness of man : "Seek 
ye first the kingdom of God and his righteousness." Here 
the sharp difference between Jesus and the people stands 
out. The Jews were luxuriating in imagining all the joys 
and delights of the future age of the Kingdom. Jesus was 
summoning his disciples to earnestness and watchfulness. 
This message of watchfulness is given us in two striking 
parables, that of the ten virgins and that of the master and 
the servants (Matt 25. 1-13; Luke 12. 35-46). 

Is the kingdom of God in Jesus' teaching something The Kingdom 
purely inner and spiritual, or is it something outer, a new 
society? Undoubtedly it is the inner and spiritual upon 
which Jesus lays stress. It means eternal life, as we have 
seen. It works in hidden manner like the leaven, and grows 
inconspicuously like the mustard seed (Matt 13. 31-33). 
And what Jesus says about the people who enter the King- 
dom or to whom it belongs, points the same way; it is the 
inner spirit that is decisive. To enter the Kingdom one 
must have the spirit of a child (Matt 18. 3). It is hard 
for the rich to enter, for they are apt to be proud and 
contented (Mark 10. 23). In beautiful yet searching manner 
the Beatitudes set forth this inner spirit of the Kingdom, 
whose blessings belong to the poor in spirit, the meek, the 



as inner and 
spiritual 



as social 



72 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

pure in heart, and those that hunger for its righteousness 
(Matt 5. 3-12). When the Pharisees asked him when the 
Kingdom would come, he answered : "The kingdom of God 
cometh not with observation: neither shall they say, Lo, 
here ! or, There ! for lo, the kingdom of God is within you" 
(Luke 17. 20, 21). They were thinking of a political state; 
for Jesus the Kingdom was, first of all, the rule of God in 
men's hearts. It is true that the Jews spoke of repentance 
and obedience to the law as necessary before the Kingdom 
could come. When Jesus speaks of obedience and mercy, 
however, he is not speaking simply of the condition upon 
which men may obtain the Kingdom ; these are for him the 
spirit and essence of the Kingdom itself. 
The Kingdom Yet while the Kingdom is, first of all, something inner 
and spiritual, it is social in its meaning and consequence. 
Jesus was neither political dreamer nor social reformer, 
but his teaching of the Kingdom has tremendous social 
meaning. Three points make this clear. ( 1 ) The Kingdom 
means God's rule in all the life of men. God is already 
in his world, but when the Kingdom comes, there will be 
no life not ruled by him. That means for us his rule in 
government and industry. That means no war, no oppres- 
sion in state, no injustice in industry. The Kingdom begins 
in men's hearts, but it does not end until the spirit of God 
rules in every institution and relation of life. (2) The 
spirit of the Kingdom is essentially social. It must always 
be working out in the life of men. The love and service of 
others is the real test of God's kingship with men (Matt 
25. 31-46). In his Kingdom the first is to be the last, the 
servant (Mark 9. 35). "Whosoever would become great 
among you, shall be your minister ; and whosoever would be 
first among you, shall be servant of all" (Mark 10. 35-45). 
The fruit of this spirit has been the noble history of missions 
and philanthropies, the modern movements of reform and 
social service, and the modern passion for social justice. 
(3) The Kingdom involved a community, a brotherhood. 



THE KINGDOM OF GOD 73 

Jesus thought of the men of the Kingdom not as subjects 
but as sons, and sonship means brotherhood. The spirit of 
the Kingdom must bring the members of the Kingdom to- 
gether. The first circle of Jesus' disciples was the promise 
of what was to come. The church as a fellowship was the 
inevitable expression of the Kingdom. The end could 
only be what Paul foresaw, the breaking down of the divi- 
sions and enmities that had separated men in classes and 
nations, and the final bringing together of all men into one 
brotherhood, the family of God. 

Was the Kingdom in the future with Jesus, or was it The Kingdom 

• 1 1 1 as luture and 

already present? It seems certain that Jesus thought that as present 
the Kingdom was in the future, although very near. That 
is the meaning of the word, "The kingdom of God is at 
hand." It is at the door. "There are some here of them 
that stand by," he said, "who shall in no wise taste of 
death, till they see the kingdom of God come with power" 
(Mark 9. 1). On the other hand, it seems just as clear 
that Jesus thought that the beginnings of the Kingdom were 
already present. The rule of God meant the overthrow of 
evil in the world and the reign of God in men's lives. That 
he saw already taking place. He saw the sons of the King- 
dom present (Matt 17. 26), the sons of the bridechamber 
(Mark 2. 19). He saw publicans and harlots going into 
the kingdom of God (Matt 21. 31). He pointed John's 
disciples to what was already taking place (Matt 11. 2-6). 
And he discerned it especially in his healings. He had 
entered the house of the strong man and had bound the 
powers of evil; he had seen Satan fallen as lightning from 
heaven (Luke 10. 18). It was God's rule even now dis- 
placing the rule of evil. "If I by the Spirit of God cast out 
demons, then is the kingdom of God come upon you" 
(Matt 12. 22-29). 

These were, indeed, only small beginnings. On every Parables 
side the power of evil still lay, while the Kingdom itself ofencour - 

- 1 J ° agement 

was coming quietly and almost unnoticed. There are three 



74 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

parables of the Kingdom that Jesus seems to have spoken 
primarily to hearten his disciples who might be discouraged 
by these facts. They are those of the wheat and tares, the 
mustard seed, and the leaven (Matt 13. 24-33). The seed 
which they were scattering was growing slowly and there 
were tares, but it was growing surely, and grain and weed 
would be made manifest some day. The Kingdom was only 
a mustard seed now ; it would be a tree by and by. Now 
it was like hidden leaven, but it would permeate the whole 
lump after a while. Above all, they were to remember 
this, that it was theirs simply to scatter the seed; the fruitage 
came from a power not their own. "The earth beareth fruit 
of herself; first the blade, then the ear, then the full grain 
in the ear" (Mark 4. 26-29). 
The meaning These two convictions apparently lay side by side in the 
Kingdom mind of Jesus: first, that the Kingdom was already here 
wherever God's will was being done and sinners were 
turning to him and evil was being overthrown ; second, that 
in its fullness and power it should come some time in the 
near future. The important element in Jesus' teaching is 
not this thought of the exact time of the coming; he himself 
said that no one knew the day or the hour except his Father 
in heaven (Mark 13. 28-32). It lay, rather, in three great 
truths : ( 1 ) there shall be a new earth in which the rule of 
God shall prevail in all the world; (2) this rule, or kingdom, 
will be ethical and spiritual, not an outer political reign, but 
an inner spirit of righteousness and love; (3) this rule will 
show itself in the way in which men live together, in all 
the relations and institutions of life; and its final manifes- 
tation will be a family, or community, of brothers upon the 
earth. 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

Parables of the Kingdom: Matt 13. 24-52; 25. 1-13; Luke 12. 35- 
46; Mark 4. 26, 29. Other passages: Matt 11. 25-30; 7. 15-27; 
5. 3-12; 11. 2-6; 12. 22-29; Mark 13. 28-32. 

Read the following parables and state what thought concerning 



THE KINGDOM OF GOD 75 

the Kingdom each of these conveys: the hidden treasure and the 
pearl (Matt 13. 44-46) ; the net and the fishes (Matt 13. 47-50) ; 
the wheat and the tares (Matt 13. 24-30) ; the virgins (Matt 25. 
1-13) ; the watchful servants (Luke 12. 35-46) ; the mustard seed 
(Matt 13. 31, 32) ; the leaven (Matt 13. 33) ; the earth bearing 
fruit (Mark 4. 26, 2g). 



CHAPTER XI 



THE FATHER 



Jesus' central 
thought 



The God of 
the prophets 



The God of 
Judaism 



Despite the place which it occupied, it is not the idea of 
the Kingdom that determines the faith and the message of 
Jesus so much as the thought of God. It was this thought 
of God that filled his own life. His conception of the world 
and of men, of what man must do and what he may hope 
for, all depended upon God. 

Jesus does not come proclaiming any new God. He 
brings to men Jehovah, the God of their fathers, "the God 
of Abraham, and the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob" 
( Mark 12. 26). He speaks the simple ancient creed: "Hear, 
O Israel ; the Lord our God, the Lord is one" (Mark 12. 29). 
We may note three elements in that lofty prophetic faith 
upon which Jesus built: (1) Jehovah was one God, God of 
all the earth ; and not merely creator and ruler of nature 
(Gen 1), but ruling the nations and moving in their history 
(Isa 40 and 45). (2) He was the God of mercy, the 
covenant God who had chosen this nation and redeemed 
it (Deut 5. 6; Hos 11). (3) He was the holy God, and it 
was holiness that he asked from men. This holiness was 
not sacrifice and ritual, but justice and mercy to fellow men 
(Isa 1 ; Mic 6. 6-8; Amos 5. 21-24). 

Israel had not kept this height. Her religion had become 
narrow, centered in her own welfare. She had lost the 
sense of Jehovah as the living God, present with her and 
speaking to her. A great system of laws and rules had taken 
God's place. God was a great bookkeeper, keeping record 
of men's obedience. Religion was to observe these laws. 
If she did this, Israel believed that at some future time God 
would again assert himself and rule in her midst. For the 
76 



THE FATHER 77 

present, since God was holy he must be separate from this 
evil world. 

Tesus goes back to the faith of the prophets ; though not J esus an ^ 

•> ° r r o ^ prophet3 

dependent upon them, (i) For Jesus too there is but one 
God, the God of all power, whom men are to reverence and 
fear. He teaches his disciples to pray, "Our Father, who 
art in heaven, Hallowed be thy name" (Matt 6. 9, 10) . This 
reverence is in his own soul ; "I thank thee, O Father, Lord 
of heaven and earth," he prays (Matt 11. 25). With this 
God all things are possible (Mark 10. 27). Jesus chides the 
questioning Sadducees with not knowing the power of God. 
Their petty quibbling, with which they tried to make him 
ridiculous, falls down before his great thought of God 
(Mark 12. 18, 27). There is nothing here of the mere 
sentimental good nature that some people have read into the 
teaching of Jesus. He says plainly that men are to fear 
God (Matt 10. 28). (2) God is the living God, present in 
his world. As the parables show, this world was constantly 
speaking to Jesus about God. The birds and the flowers 
were witnesses of God's care (Matt 6. 26-30). He could 
even say of the worthless sparrow dead by the roadside, 
that it had not fallen without his Father's knowledge (Matt 
10. 29). (3) That Jesus believed in the holiness of God 
need not be pointed out. He did not often use the word, 
because it had come to mean something ritualistic and ex- 
ternal, but the Sermon on the Mount shows the prophetic 
thought of a God whose supreme concern is the holy life, 
and whose kingdom belongs to the pure and merciful and 
those that hunger after righteousness. 

The heart of Jesus' thought of God is the idea of Father- The Father 
hood. It is the mark of his influence over the faith of men 
that it is this name by which men everywhere to-day call 
upon God. The change is more apparent when we realize 
that in the Psalms, Israel's book of worship, Jehovah is 
never called upon as Father. The Old Testament shows us 
God as the Father of his people, that is, of the nation, and 



78 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The law of 
Fatherhood 



God values 
every single 
soul 



as Father of the king as representative of the nation ; but 
he is not referred to as the Father of individual men and 
men do not pray to him as such (Hos n. i ; Isa i. 2; Deut 
1. 31 ; Isa 63. 16). For Israel Jehovah was the King. The 
King, like any ruler, would show fatherly kindness, but he 
was first of all King, and religion was obedience to him. 
For Jesus God is, first of all, Father. That is his nature, 
his heart. And religion is being a son ; it is fellowship with 
the heavenly Father. There is no question that the source 
for this idea of God and of religion was Jesus' own con- 
sciousness. It was out of this consciousness that Jesus said, 
"All things have been delivered unto me of my Father: 
and no one knoweth the Son, save the Father ; neither doth 
any know the Father, save the Son" (Matt 11. 27). 

The law of Fatherhood Jesus shows to be forgiveness and 
grace. The religion of Jesus' day was steeped in legalism. 
It was a matter of earning and getting. It brought about, 
on the one hand, a spirit of pride in those that were con- 
scious of keeping the law, on the other hand a hard and even 
contemptuous spirit toward others. "I thank thee, that I 
am not as the rest of men, extortioners, unjust, adulterers, 
or even as this publican. I fast twice in the week ; I give 
tithes of all that I get" (Luke 18. 11, 12). Men who could 
pray in this fashion naturally criticized Jesus severely. For 
Jesus, as we have seen, received men who were not keeping 
the law, he sat at table with them, and even forgave their 
sins. Jesus seemed to the Pharisees to be undermining the 
very foundations of religion, which they saw in the ideas 
of law and of merit and reward. 

Jesus answered them in a series of parables in which he 
justified his own course by pointing out this nature of God 
as Father. Three of these parables are found in Luke 15, 
though probably not all spoken on the same occasion. The 
first two have the same meaning. These sinners, he would 
say, are the Father's children, his possession. Every one is 
of value to him. The shepherd who has lost a sheep is not 






THE FATHER 79 

satisfied, though he may have ninety-nine in the fold. He 
must find that lost sheep. Like the woman who has found 
her lost coin, he rejoices over his lost sheep that he has 
found. And so these sinners that are turning to the Kingdom 
are filling their Father's heart with joy (Luke 15.1-10). 
The point of the parable is the value of the human soul. 
The same thought is in the story of Zacchaeus. There too 
he was criticized because he had "gone in to lodge with a 
man that is a sinner"; and his answer was, "He also is a 
son of Abraham." 

Luke's third parable is commonly known as that of the The parable 
prodigal son. It might better be called the parable of the ^g father 8 ' 7 " 
forgiving father. It is not meant as a picture of sin and 
its consequences. It is a picture of the forgiving heart of 
God. When the lost son comes back an earthly father does 
not weigh his desert. He rejoices that he has regained his 
son, and forgives. That is the way with God. All the rest 
of the parable, the boy's impertinent demand, his foolishness 
and wickedness, his degradation, his filth and rags — these 
are simply the strong colors that Jesus uses to bring out 
more clearly the wholly unmerited mercy of the father. 
But he makes us see that this is really the heart of God 
(Luke 15. n-32). 

The parable of the laborers is more drastic still in routing The parable 
out the whole merit and reward idea of religion (Matt 20. 
1-16). A steward, or overseer, is hiring men in the market 
place. Some he finds early in the morning and sets at 
work. He goes back in the forenoon, at noon, and in the 
afternoon, hiring others as he finds them. Late in the 
afternoon he finds still others, who work for him the brief 
remainder of the day. When night comes each man receives 
the regular day's wage, and the last named as much as the 
rest. At which the first complain, pointing to the greater 
work that they had done. The steward's answer was, "Is 
it not lawful for me to do what I will with mine own? or 
is thine eye evil, because I am good?" The old allegorical 



of the 
laborers 



80 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

method, by which each point and person in the parable had 
a special meaning, would land us here in endless difficulties. 
If we are contented with the central point or argument, 
then the meaning is clear. God is giving the Kingdom to 
penitent sinners as the steward paid the late comers among 
the workmen ; it is not what they have earned but what his 
goodness bestows. The complaining workmen are like 
the Pharisees, grudging this gift. But God is not the master, 
giving servants what they earn, he is the Father, giving 
and forgiving because that is his nature. Matt 5. 43-48 
brings out the same truth. 
God's King- The King is Father, therefore, not taskmaster. But that 
man's trust 1S n °t all, the Father is King. This gracious and merciful 
Father rules all the world and therefore men may trust 
in him and be unafraid. Very beautifully Jesus brings this 
out: "Behold the birds of the heaven, that they sow not, 
neither do they reap, nor gather into barns ; and your 
heavenly Father feedeth them. Consider the lilies of the 
field, how they grow ; they toil not, neither do they spin : 
yet I say unto you, that even Solomon in all his glory was 
not arrayed like one of these" (Matt 6. 26, 28, 29). Jesus 
saw love and power joined together. That was why men, 
when they feared God, could rejoice and fear nothing else. 
"Be not afraid of them that kill the body," he told his 
disciples, "but are not able to kill the soul ; but rather fear 
him who is able to destroy both soul and body in hell. Are 
not two sparrows sold for a penny? and not one of them 
shall fall on the ground without your Father : but the very 
hairs of your head are all numbered. Fear not therefore : 
ye are of more value than many sparrows" (Matt 10. 28-31). 
God gives But the greatest gift of this Fatherhood is not this care, 

fellowship nor even forgiveness, but fellowship. That is what the 
forgiveness of the Father means ; it is the admission of the 
sons to the Father despite their sin and ill desert (Luke 15. 
20-24). Such a fellowship meant peace of conscience and 
quiet of soul, and the strength that comes from trust when 



THE FATHER 81 

a man knows that all his life is under God's care. The 
deepest meaning of this fellowship, or sonship, Jesus showed 
in his own life. The disciples saw it in his praying, and 
asked him to teach his secret to them (Luke n. i). He 
himself was conscious that it was his great task to lead 
men into this life of sonship. That, indeed, was his double 
task: to show men the Father, to make men sons. That 
consciousness is expressed in a wonderful passage that 
rises to a lyric note: "I thank thee, O Father, Lord of 
heaven and earth, because thou hast hid these things from 
the wise and prudent, and hast revealed them unto babes. 
Even so, Father; for so it seemed good in thy sight. All 
things are delivered unto me of my Father : and no man 
knoweth the Son, but the Father ; neither knoweth any man 
the Father, save the Son, and he to whomsoever the Son 
will reveal him. Come unto me, all ye that labor and are 
heavy laden, and I will give you rest. Take my yoke upon 
you, and learn of me; for I am meek and lowly in heart: 
and ye shall find rest unto your souls. For my yoke is 
easy, and my burden is light" (Matt n. 25-30). It was 
this fellowship, with its love and gratitude and trust, that 
was for Jesus' followers the spirit and power of a new life. 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

Read Matt 6. 25-34; 10. 23-31; 11. 25-30. 

Read the four parables in Luke 15 and Matt 20. 1-16. Tell the 
story and bring out the argument of each. 

Read Matt 5. 43-48 and Luke 19. 1-10. Recall from previous 
study the instances of a Pharisee and of a publican from whom 
Jesus accepted hospitality. 



righteous- 
ness 



CHAPTER XII 
THE LIFE WITH GOD 

jesus' idea Jesus' conception of religion may perhaps best be stated 

in the phrase, fellowship with God in the service of men; 
to live first as a son with the Father, second as a brother 
with men. 

jesus' idea of The central idea of religion for the Jews of Jesus' day 
was righteousness. In the Sermon on the Mount Matthew 
has brought together the teachings of Jesus in which his 
idea of righteousness is set forth in contrast with that of 
the Pharisees, who were the acknowledged leaders of the 
people. The life with God that Jesus taught demanded 
righteousness also, but it is something far different from 
the keeping of rules which the Pharisees taught, (i) It 
was an inner righteousness; not many laws but one spirit. 
They had criticized him for his practice (Luke 15. 2) ; he 
declared that it was simply a higher righteousness for which 
he stood (Matt 5. 20). Outward deeds may do for a serv- 
ant, but the son must have an inner spirit like his father. 
The angry spirit is a sin as truly as the deed of murder. 
The lustful glance is as truly wrong as adultery. It is not 
enough to avoid profanity ; there must be a simple sincerity 
back of our speech. The mere rule of give as you get, 
both good and evil, will not suffice; there must be an inner 
spirit of good will such as our Father shows to all men 
(Matt 5. 21-48). Long before this, Jeremiah had spoken 
of the day when the law was to be no more an outward 
rule but an inner spirit (Jer 31. 31-34), and the psalmist 
had prayed for inner purity (Psa 51. 10). Such teaching 
Jesus was completing, or "fulfilling" (Matt 5. 17). (2) It 
was a social righteousness ; men were to show it in serving 
their brethren. That was to be the test in the judgment 
82 



THE LIFE WITH GOD 83 

(Matt 25. 40). The way to show love to God was by 
showing it to men: "Whosoever shall receive one of such 
little children in my name, receiveth me: and whosoever 
receiveth me, receiveth not me, but him that sent me" (Mark 
9. 37). To be reconciled to one's brother was more im- 
portant than bringing a gift to the altar (Matt 5. 21-24). 
(3) It was an ethical righteousness. Mere religious rules 
and ceremonies did not count. Jesus protested against the 
Pharisees that they were defeating morality by their very 
rules (Matt 7. 1-13). It was the heart of a man that 
counted, not the ritual (Mark 7. 14-23). (4) This righteous- 
ness in one word meant sonship, "that ye may be sons of 
your Father who is in heaven" (Matt 5. 45). Higher than 
that it is not possible to go : "Ye therefore shall be perfect, 
as your heavenly Father is perfect" (Matt 5. 48). In a 
mere religion of law such a demand would be impossible. 
But Jesus' religion is one of grace, and not simply of de- 
mand. God does not ask men to become sons before he 
will receive them. Sonship is a gift, not simply a task. 
That is the meaning of forgiveness: God receives men as 
sons, though they are sinners, that by his help they may live 
as sons. 

It is the term "sonship," not "righteousness," that gives The religion 
us the best description of Jesus' idea of religion and the J^^j^f 
life with God. The first characteristic of this religion of of desire 
sonship is the spirit of humility and desire. That follows 
from its very nature as God's gracious gift to us. God's 
first need is to find in us an openness and a longing for 
what he has to give. That is the meaning of his word 
about the child : "Whosoever shall not receive the kingdom 
of God as a little child, he shall in no wise enter therein" 
(Mark 10. 15). "Except ye turn, and become as little 
children, ye shall in no wise enter into the kingdom of 
heaven" (Matt 18. 3). It is the same spirit that he praises 
in the Beatitudes. The Kingdom is God's gift, but men 
must have the humble spirit and the earnest desire in order 



84 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

to receive it. And so his beatitude is for the poor in spirit, 
for those that mourn, for the meek, for those that hunger 
and thirst after righteousness (Matt 5. 3-9). It was this 
spirit that he found wanting in the Pharisees and in so 
many others. They were too well satisfied with themselves 
(Luke 18. 11) ; for Jesus there is a divinity in discontent. 
That is the meaning of the parable of the great supper. 
It was called forth by a pious ejaculation on the part of 
some man who was at the supper table with Jesus : "Blessed 
is he that shall eat bread in the kingdom of God." In 
reply, Jesus tells the story of those that refused the great 
invitation (Luke 14. 15-24). As a matter of fact, he says, 
when the great invitation comes men refuse it. That, as 
we have seen, was what stirred him with joy in his contact 
with so many sinners: these were humble and eager, were 
pressing into the kingdom of God, were even taking it in 
their eagerness by storm (Matt 21. 31; 11. 12). 
The We of This leads to the second quality that Jesus demands — 

surrender a certain decision of character, a whole-hearted surrender 
of life. Religion was no incident with him; it meant a 
man's whole life. What God gives is everything; he de- 
mands everything in return. Jesus has a fine impatience 
with the superficial life : it is not saying, "Lord, Lord," that 
counts, but doing the will of his Father (Matt 7. 21). He 
has as little place for the divided life: "No man can serve 
two masters." Such a life means anxiety, and anxiety 
means wickedness (Matt 6. 24, 25). Jesus' own life was 
all of one piece. It had the strength that comes with a 
great and dominant purpose. The double life, he saw, 
meant not only weakness but darkness. Moral vision comes 
with singleness and sincerity of soul. "If therefore thine 
eye be single, thy whole body shall be full of light. But 
if thine eye be evil, thy whole body shall be full of darkness" 
(Matt 6. 22, 23). The stern demands that Jesus makes do 
not mean narrowness or asceticism, but simply spiritual 
vision and moral earnestness. "Narrow is the gate, and 



THE LIFE WITH GOD 85 

straitened the way, that leadeth unto life" (Matt 7. 13, 14). 
"He that doth not take his cross and follow after me, is not 
worthy of me" (Matt 10. 34-39). The foundation of a strong 
life is not a passing impulse but a clear decision that counts 
the cost. The man who builds or the king who makes 
war ought to look to the end and not simply the beginning. 
A man must deliberately decide that if necessary he will 
sacrifice the closest tie or give up life itself. That is what 
Jesus means by the startling word, "If any man cometh 
unto me, and hateth not his own father, and mother, and 
wife, and children, and brethren, and sisters, yea, and his 
own life also, he cannot be my disciple" (Luke 14. 25-33). 
This is not asceticism. Asceticism is the denial of life. 
Jesus' attitude toward life is everywhere affirmative. Cut 
off thy right hand, he says, pluck out the right eye, but 
make sure of life (Mark 9. 43-48). 

These demands of Jesus raise the question as to his at- Jesus' al- 
titude toward the world in general and toward riches in ^^JZtn* 6 
particular. As to the world of nature, Jesus' teaching as and riches 
we have noted it so far shows his simple pleasure in birds 
and flowers and growing grain and all the life about him. 
It was his Father's house, and it spoke to him of his 
Father's wisdom and goodness. There is no dualism here. 
But his clear vision showed him that all about him were 
men who were losing their life because they saw and loved 
only the world of things. No more searching words are 
found in his teaching than those that warn of the peril of 
riches. But it is not hatred of the world that sounds in 
them, only the love of men. Three stories bring us this 
lesson, each in some special aspect. The first shows us how 
wealth blinds a man to the real meaning and the real riches 
of life. It is the story of the rich farmer joining field to 
field and adding barn to barn, as though that were the 
end of life. Jesus writes his epitaph in two words: "thou 
fool" (Luke 12. 13-21). The second shows how wealth 
dulls a man's ears to any spiritual appeal and hardens his 



86 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The life 
of trust 



The place 
of prayer 
with Jesus 



heart toward his fellows. Dives feasts and has no thought 
for Lazarus. Dives thinks that his brothers would repent 
if Lazarus were sent back to earth, but Abraham points out 
that his brothers have what he had on earth, Moses and the 
prophets (Luke 16. 19-31). Riches tend to make a man 
self-sufficient and proud. The rich man is used to having 
men defer to his judgment and bow to his will. He is 
usually far removed from that humility and sense of need 
which Jesus set forth. It is hard for such a man to enter 
into the kingdom of heaven. The third is the story of the 
rich young ruler. Here, at least, is a man of wealth and 
station who seems wholly in earnest: "What shall I do 
that I may inherit eternal life?" Mark says that he ran 
to meet Jesus and knelt before him. But he cannot meet 
the final test. Jesus finds his point of weakness. He would 
fain have eternal life, but there is one thing that he rates 
still higher. And so he turns away (Mark 10. 17-27). A 
man's wealth so easily becomes his master, and "No man 
can serve two masters. ... Ye canot serve God and mam- 
mon." 

The third principle of the life of sonship is trust. If 
the love of the world is wrong, as we have just seen, so 
also is the fear of the world. Jesus puts them side by side 
(Matt 6. 19-34). Both of them are paganism, putting 
something else up as a god, or as a power to stand beside 
God. For Jesus God stood not only first but alone. When 
a man really loved God everything else was given to him 
with that (Matt 6. 33). When a man really feared God, 
there was nothing else of which to be afraid. Anxiety, 
therefore, was a sin. In beautiful pictures Jesus shows 
us the God who cares for all the world, even the little 
worthless sparrow. His own life showed the strength and 
peace which came from such a trust, as he moved on sure of 
God and fearless of all else (Luke 13. 31, 32). 

Prayer is the simplest and most natural expression of 
this life of trust. How important it was for Jesus himself 



THE LIFE WITH GOD 87 

we have already seen. The times of crisis in his life show 
Jesus at prayer. This is in connection with the days of 
meditation and temptation before he begins his ministry. 
It appears again at Capernaum. He spends the night in 
prayer before he chooses the twelve. It is the same at 
Csesarea Philippi, the turning point in his work, and again 
at Gethsemane, when he faces the cross and death. 

Jesus found men ignorant of the life of prayer and in- The encour- 
different to it; God was master and religion was keeping prayer 
laws and earning rewards. Jesus' doctrine of prayer fol- 
lowed inevitably from the teaching about the character of 
the Father and the nature of the life of his sons. If the 
fathers that we know give good gifts to their children, shall 
not the Father who is all goodness do this and much more? 
Therefore take courage ; pray. If you ask, it shall be given 
you. If you seek, you shall find. If you knock, it shall be 
opened to you (Matt. 7. 7-11). This confident spirit, he 
said, is the greatest power in our lives. He puts this truth 
in his usual picture speech : "If ye had faith as a grain of 
mustard seed, ye would say unto this sycamine tree, Be thou 
rooted up, and be thou planted in the sea; and it would 
obey you" (Luke 17: 6). "All things are possible to him 
that believeth" (Mark 9. 23). 

The same lesson of encouragement to prayer is brought Two parables 
by two parables that are often misunderstood. The first agement 
is the story of the unwilling friend, whose neighbor has 
had unexpected guests. These have come at night and 
there is no bread in the house. So he goes to his friend. 
The friend is in bed and does not want to be disturbed, 
but he gives in at last just because the neighbor keeps up 
his knocking (Luke 11. 5-13). The second is the story of 
the unjust judge. He has no interest in the poor widow, 
and no impulse of justice moves him to hear her case. But 
he yields at last just to get rid of her (Luke 18. 1-8). 
These parables do not teach importunity in prayer. It 
is the pagan heart that thinks it shall be heard for its 



pray 



88 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

much speaking (Matt 6. 7). God is not an unwilling- 
friend or an unrighteous judge who will hear us at last 
just to get rid of us. Jesus' argument is this: If such 
men, evil or unwilling, will yet give in the end, how much 
more will God hear us who is our gracious Father? 

How to Jesus not only encouraged men to pray, and showed 

them the power of this attitude of faith, but he showed them 
what prayer was and how to pray. He showed them by 
his example, which moved the deeply impressed disciples 
to ask him to teach them to pray (Luke 11. 1-4). He showed 
them the difference between praying and making prayers. 
They are not to say prayers, as the Pharisees do, who are 
not averse to being caught upon the street corner when the 
time for prayer comes, so that men may see how devout 
they are. Prayer with him is fellowship, talking with God. 
Let them go apart, therefore, and let their speech with God 
be simple and sincere (Matt 6. 5-15). Then he gives what 
we know as the Lord's Prayer. The spirit of Jesus' re- 
ligion is nowhere more beautifully or truly expressed than 
in the Beatitudes and in this prayer. Here is the utter 
devotion to God, his name, his will, his kingdom. Here 
is the quiet and strength that comes with perfect trust. 
There is no clamorous petition here. The need of bread 
and forgiveness and daily help is brought to God, but only 
that it may be left with him. 

Faith in God, Jesus' teaching as to prayer has often been misunder- 
stood. The words that he used to encourage men to pray 
(Mark 11. 22-24) nave been taken as indicating a sort of 
magical power in prayer, that prayers themselves must 
bring certain results. And so men have talked about faith 
in prayer. But this was just what Jesus protested against 
in the Pharisees. With him it was not faith in prayers, 
but faith in God. Petition has its place in prayer, but trust 
and fellowship are the supreme words. This fellowship, 
for example, demands that we shall have the forgiving spirit 
when we pray to the forgiving God (Matt 6. 12-15). What 



not faith 
prayers 



THE LIFE WITH GOD 89 

the trust means is shown us in the example of Jesus' own 
praying (Luke 22. 42). Jesus does not say, "Thy will 
be done," because he cannot get what he asks, but because 
God's will is his supreme desire. It follows from his trust 
in God that God's will is the highest good. It is the same 
spirit of devotion and trust that breathes in the quiet words 
of the Lord's Prayer. 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

Make a topical outline of the Sermon on the Mount (Matt 5 to 7). 

Scholars agree that this is a collection of sayings made by 
Matthew, brought together here and arranged probably for pur- 
poses of use in instruction. Find the general subject, for example, 
of 5. 21-48 and 6. 1-18. 

Using a synopsis or harmony, note that this material is wholly 
lacking in Mark, who deals more in incidents and less in teaching. 
Comparing Matthew and Luke, note several instances in which 
Luke seems to give the correct historical setting for some saying 
included by Matthew in his collection. 

As to the spirit of humility and desire, read in addition Mark 
9- 33-37; 10. 13-16; Matt 18. 1-6; Luke 14. 15-24. 

As to the demand of decision and devotion, read Matt 10. 34-39 ; 
Luke 14. 25-33 ; Mark 9. 43-48. 

Read the stories of the three rich men : Luke 12. 13-21 ; 16. 19- 
31 ; Mark 10. 17-27. 

As to prayer, read Mark 11. 22-25; Luke 11. 5-13; 18. 1-8. 



CHAPTER XIII 
THE LIFE WITH MEN 
with jesus All realize to-day that religion and morals must go to- 

religion and , T T , . T , _, 

morality gether. It was not so in Jesus time. In the Roman world 

are one religion was quite distinct from matters of conduct and char- 

acter. The leaders of the Jewish faith laid the stress 
upon innumerable rites and rules which were to be observed 
for their own sake. With Jesus religion and ethics are 
one. He knows no such thing as a religion which does not 
issue in ethics, or a morality that does not spring from re- 
ligion. The oneness is apparent from three considerations, 
(i) It is seen in the great commandment in which Jesus 
sums up all religion: "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God 
with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy 
mind. Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself" (Matt 22. 
34-40). Given in double form, the commandment really is 
y one. The Pharisees summed up duty in six hundred and 
thirteen rules. Jesus has but one, and that is not a rule 
but an inner spirit. In that spirit faith and service are one ; 
it is the same spirit whether turned toward God or man. 
(2) Jesus declares that our love of God must be shown 
in the service of his brethren, of God's children (Matt 25. 
31-40). The mere forms of religion had no interest for 
Jesus. To be reconciled to one's brother comes before the 
gift at the altar. The Sabbath was not a form to be kept 
or a work to be done for God ; it was a gift to man, and a 
good deed was the right way of keeping it. It was mercy, 
not sacrifice, that God wanted, as the prophet had taught 
long ago (Matt 12. 1-8; Mark 2. 23-28; 3. 1-5). (3) The 
heart of Jesus' ethics comes from his faith. To be a brother 
sums up the whole relation to men, but what that means 
we know only as we look to God. From his spirit as 
90 



THE LIFE WITH MEN 91 

Father we learn what we are to be as sons, merciful as he 
is merciful. And from his Fatherhood we learn that all 
men are our brothers, evil as well as good. Looking back 
to-day, we know that there never has been any real and 
full brotherhood except as there has been this faith in God 
as Father. 

The first principle in the practice of brotherhood is that The law of 
of reverence, the regard for humanity as sacred. Here, as 
at every point in the practice of brotherhood, the ideal 
is simply that men are to be "sons of the Father who is 
in heaven." God values men, as we have seen, and even 
welcomes back those that have been sinful (Luke 15). 
Human life is the one thing that is worth more than all 
the world (Mark 8. 36, 37). Not even the weakest and 
meanest of human lives may be injured with impunity; 
"Whosoever shall cause one of these little ones that believe 
on me to stumble, it were better for him if a great millstone 
were hanged about his neck, and he were cast into the sea" 
(Mark 9. 42). And even the spirit of contempt shown 
toward our fellow men brings down the judgment of God 
(Matt 5. 21, 22). Only gradually are we seeing the tre- 
mendous meaning for our social life of this teaching of 
Jesus, which has slowly been reversing the practice of the 
ages. The protection of property was the chief interest of 
law and government in his day. Gradually under this prin- 
ciple we are making human welfare our chief aim. 

The second principle of brotherhood is the law of grace The law of 
and good will. Here too it is the spirit of the Father that food^i 
determines what the sons should be. We are to show the 
forgiving spirit to men as he shows it to us (Matt 6. 12-15). 
And it is not to be a grudging or limited forgiveness. As 
God forgives us freely and constantly, so we are to forgive, 
not seven times, but seventy times seven. Jesus enforces 
this by the parable of the wicked servant, who owed his 
king the enormous sum of ten millions of dollars. Such a 
sum he could not think of paying. According to the cruel 



92 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

law of the time, it meant not simply prison but slavery for 
himself and family. Instead his lord remits the whole. The 
servant, however, finds a man who owes him a few dollars, 
and throws his poor creditor into prison because he cannot 
pay this. We are to practice toward men the mercy that 
God shows to us (Matt 18. 21-35). 

The strongest statement of this law of grace and good 
will is found in Matt 5. 38-48. Just as Jesus ruled out 
legalism between God and man, so here between man and 
his fellow men. He puts aside the old give-and-take, "an 
eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth." He stands for 
justitia, and not jus, for righteousness, and not rights. 
Against the assertion of rights and the use of force to obtain 
them Jesus sets up his new principle: unconquerable good 
will and trust in the power of love. It is easy to mistake 
these words by taking them literally, as Tolstoy did. By 
these figures of speech, by drastic statement, Jesus is trying 
to contrast a new principle with the old. As always, it 
is a spirit that he stands for, and not a set of rules that he 
is giving. The spirit of legalism says, "I will give what I 
get." God does not treat men that way. He shows men 
good, not to repay what they have earned, but because this 
spirit of mercy is his own nature and is right in itself. 
So we are to show to all men a good will which no evil 
on their part can overcome : not resistance, not force when 
kindness fails, but unfailing love all the time. 
The law of The final law is that of service and sacrifice. The corn- 

sacrifice" 1 ,non ru ^ e w ^ n men i s > Let us S e ^ what we can. Jesus' rule 
was, Let us give what we can. He illustrates it from the 
social life. To Jesus it seemed a sort of profanation of 
that hospitality which he himself was glad to receive to 
make it, as it commonly is, simply a give-and-take affair. 
"When thou makest a feast, bid the poor, the maimed, the 
lame, the blind : and thou shalt be blessed : because they 
have not wherewith to recompense thee" (Luke 14. 12-14). 
Such hospitality had in it the real joy of serving and giv- 



THE LIFE WITH MEN 93 

ing. Such a spirit of unselfish service Jesus appreciated 
wherever he saw it. He rebuked the narrow spirit of the 
disciples who were suspicious of some man who was curing 
demoniacs, but not a member of their company. The man 
was serving men, that was the great matter. Even a cup 
of cold water counted if given in this spirit (Mark 9. 38-41). 

This unselfish service was no mere duty for Jesus. It service as the 
was a life, and the only way to achieve life. There are 
several instances where he set this forth. According to 
Mark, there were two occasions when the question of posi- 
tion came up among the disciples. Once the brothers, James 
and John, came to him asking that they might have chief 
places with him when he should come as King in triumph 
(Mark 10. 35-45). Another time the disciples quarreled 
among themselves (Mark 9. 33-41). For them the coming 
Kingdom still meant power and rule. "In my kingdom," 
says Jesus, "the way to reign is to serve. The chance to 
serve is the real throne of life. That man is first who 
serves best." 

The same principle Jesus set forth in even more search- Losing and 
ing manner on another occasion. At the turning point in his mg 
career Jesus began telling his disciples that instead of his 
winning an earthly triumph, his enemies were to gain their 
ends, and he must suffer at their hands and die. In an- 
swer to their protest he gave them this searching lesson. To 
try to save your life when duty brings danger or death is 
simply to lose it; and to give up your life in daily service 
or in some supreme devotion is to find it. Against the 
real life thus found the whole world cannot be weighed in 
value (Mark 8. 31-37). Keeping is losing, spending is 
gaining: that was Jesus' law of life. 

Most important of all is the fact that this is the animat- Service and 
ing principle of Jesus' own life. On the one hand is the J^™^ 
spirit of service. That was life's meaning for him, the op- 
portunity of spending it for others. He was a servant 
(Mark 10. 45). On the other hand was his confidence in 



94 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

the power of love as against all use of force. He had fought 
that out in the wilderness ; he would not use the kingdoms 
of this world. To that principle he remained true. When 
they laid hands of force on him at last, he bowed to it; 
he knew that it was coming. He himself met alike the love 
of his friends and the deed of his enemies with love alone 
in return. The years since then have shown which was 
stronger, his weapon or that of his foes. 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

The relation of religion and ethics: Matt 22. 34-40; 12. 1-8; 
Mark 2. 23-28; 3. 1-5. 

The law of reverence: Mark 8. 36, 37; 9. 42; Matt 5. 21, 22. 

As to the law of grace and good will, read Matt 6. 12-15; 
18. 21-35; 5- 38-48. 

As to the law of service and sacrifice, read Luke 14. 12-14; Mark 
9. 33-41 ; 10. 35-45 ; 8. 31-37. 

What indications do you find in history and in modern social 
and legislative reforms of the reverence for human life which 
Jesus represents? Is this growing? 

From concrete incidents in Jesus' own life, show that his actual 
method was the use of love and good will rather than force? 
How was that foreshadowed in the temptation experience? 



CHAPTER XIV 
FOES AND CONFLICTS 

One of the paradoxes in Jesus' life is seen in the fact Conflicts 
that, despite his spirit of love, and his message of good 
will, his own life was one of conflict, a conflict that deep- 
ened and grew more bitter till it brought about the end. 
This conflict appears in different forms and degrees : there 
is the misunderstanding of his family and friends; there 
is the attitude of the Galilsean populace, changing from early- 
enthusiasm to later disappointment and indifference ; and 
there is the early and growing enmity of the scribes and 
Pharisees. These conflicts bring the element of change and 
movement into Jesus' life, and at last hurry him on to 
his death. 

The first opposition that appeared was that of the Phari- The Pli ar- 
saic party. Mark shows this at the very beginning, when confli&ubout 
Jesus healed a man upon the Sabbath. The conflict about the law 
the Sabbath was the most frequent cause of their attack. 
Usually it was because Jesus followed the higher law of 
mercy and healed upon the Sabbath (Mark 2. 23-28; 3. 
1-6; Luke 14. 1-6; 13. 10-17). They criticized him equally, 
however, for failing to keep other laws. He and his dis- 
ciples kept none of the regular fasts, nor did they follow 
the innumerable rules about ceremonial washings (Mark 
2. 18-22; 7. 1-5). 

The study of Jesus' teaching and practice shows the real a different 
ground for these differences. It was not simply personal region' 0110 
hostility. It was a wholly different conception of religion 
and righteousness. For Jesus' opponents religion was a 
sum of laws that God had given, and of rules or traditions 
handed down by the fathers, which made clear the ap- 
plication of the laws, and which were almost more sacred 
95 



96 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

than the laws themselves. A religion of life and the spirit 
faced here a religion of law and tradition. The great teach- 
ings of the prophets about love and mercy and justice had 
not been forgotten by the Jews ; but the formal and cere- 
monial stood side by side with the ethical and spiritual, and 
in actual practice the latter were lost in the routine per- 
formance of the former. 

The new Jesus did not begin an attack upon legalism and for- 

malism, but he left them at one side. He did not fast or 
observe the rules of washing, nor do we hear that he ever 
offered sacrifice. He paid no regard to ceremonial purity. 
He sat at table with sinners and publicans (Mark 2. 15) ; 
he touched the leper (Mark 1. 41) ; he did not mind that the 
woman with the issue of blood touched him (Mark 5. 27, 
34). His principles were clear. Religion for him was (1) 
not outward forms but an inner spirit; (2) not rules per- 
formed for God but service wrought for men; and (3) the 
oneness with the Father of his children, who show to God 
reverence and trust and to men his own spirit of mercy 
and good will. Such fundamental difference had to bring 
conflict. With it went another fact: Jesus was conscious 
of bringing in a new age. He came with a message of joy, 
a ministry of deliverance and gracious service (Luke 4. 
18-21). The bridegroom was here; why should the sons 
of the bridechamber fast? The new life was here; why 
try to press it into the old forms (Mark 2. 18-22) ? To the 
Pharisees he was the revolutionist, overturning the old that 
was sacred. In his own heart he knew himself as the bringer 
of a new life and a new day. 

The spirit of Besides all this was the difference between his own spirit 
and that of the Jews. He calls the latter the leaven of the 
Pharisees (Luke 12. 1). In the terrible indictment of Matt 
23 he charges the Pharisees with being hypocrites, religious 
actors. Religion meant to him humble reverence for God 
and loving good will to men. He found in them the oppo- 
site. They were selfish at heart, desiring applause and pref- 



FOES AND CONFLICTS 97 

erence. They did not care for men. They bound excessive 
burdens upon them. They put their formal rules before 
plain human obligations, and the very multitude of their 
rules, which made them so strict and pious, was actu- 
ally a means to defeat the real spirit of the law (Mark 7. 
8-23). Finally he charged them with willful spiritual blind- 
ness (Matt 12. 22-2,7). He had been casting out demons. 
They declared that he was in league with Satan, and that 
was the reason Satan's angels obeyed him. He saw in 
the charge simply their willful refusal to see the truth. 
He charged them with the sin of sins, the sin against the 
Holy Spirit. It was not their rejection of him. It was the 
fact that they saw the light and called it darkness. They 
were sinning against the Spirit of God who was speaking to 
them. The man who thus willfully perverts his conscience 
shuts the only door by which God gets in. That was what 
he meant when he spoke of the evil eye and the darkened 
life (Matt 6. 22, 23). 

In the same chapter follows another charge which Jesus The sin of the 
sets forth in the striking parable of the empty room (Matt empty room 
12. 38-45). They had been asking for signs. He refused 
them. It was not light that they needed, but obedience. 
They were like the man who had been set free from an 
unclean spirit, who tried to keep his soul clean and fair 
and well ordered, but who would let nothing in. The last 
state of that man was a life of evil far worse than the first. 
These men were not guilty of the common vices. They 
prided themselves upon the order of their life; but their 
souls were empty, and when he came with the truth of God 
and the call to devote their lives, they shut the door. The 
fair outside did not deceive him. They were like the fresh 
whitewashed graves, seeming without, full of corruption 
within. 

These were not the only conflicts in Tesus' life. He had The conflict 

, . . with friends 

to face as well the misunderstanding and opposition of his and family 
friends and neighbors, and even his own family. At one 



98 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



Jesus 
demands 
supreme 
allegiance 



time his friends tried to carry him off, declaring that he 
was beside himself (Mark 3. 20, 21). He had not begun 
his ministry at Nazareth, and when he went back at length 
the fame of his preaching and healing had preceded him. 
His fellow villagers listened to him with wonder, but he 
read their unexpressed thought: Show us some of these 
wonders that we have heard of from Capernaum. Their 
proverb, "Physician, heal thyself," he answered with an- 
other, "No prophet is acceptable in his own country." "And 
they rose up and cast him forth out of the city" (Luke 4. 16- 
30). Still harder was the break with his own family, which 
may have occurred before the Nazareth incident. It was 
reported to him while he was preaching that his mother 
and brothers were without the house and had sent for him. 
But there was a tie even deeper than that which bound him 
to mother and brothers. It was the tie of loyalty to the 
work for his brother men in the kingdom of God. In answer 
he looked around at the gathered company in the house and 
said, "Behold, my mother and my brethren ! For whosoever 
shall do the will of God, the same is my brother, and sister, 
and mother" (Mark 3. 31-35). 

These experiences evidently lie back of the words of 
Jesus reported by Matthew as given in connection with the 
sending out of the twelve disciples on an independent mis- 
sionary tour of their own (Matt 10). Matthew has prob- 
ably brought together here, after his custom, sayings spoken 
on various occasions, but bearing upon one theme — the work 
of the Christian apostle. Such words may well have been 
used by the church in later years as an address of ordina- 
tion or commission, when apostles or missionaries were sent 
forth, and they have probably undergone some changes in 
this usage. But the message itself seems to come from 
Jesus' own experience. His call was to a supreme allegiance: 
"He that doth not take his cross and follow after me is not 
worthy of me." Such loyalty might mean the breaking of all 
other ties. That had been his own lot : "I came not to send 



FOES AND CONFLICTS 99 

peace, but a sword." "I came to set a man at variance 
with his father, and the daughter against her mother, and 
the daughter-in-law against her mother-in-law." They must 
not hesitate to share what he had borne: "A disciple is not 
above his teacher, nor a servant above his lord." But they 
were to share his faith and courage also: "Fear them not 
therefore. Be not afraid of them that kill the body, but 
are not able to kill the soul. The very hairs of your head 
are numbered." This chapter may be joined with the story 
of the temptation as a bit of the autobiography of Jesus : the 
wandering life, here received, there rejected, with no sure 
place for shelter ; the bitter experience of malice and hatred 
from men and misunderstanding even from nearest kindred ; 
the courage to speak every hidden word, and the assurance 
that his life was in his Father's hand who marked his 
every step. 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

As to the attack upon Jesus, read Mark 2. 23-28; 3. 1-6; Luke 
14. 1-6; 13. 10-17. State the charges against Jesus as you think 
the Pharisees might have framed them from their standpoint. 

As to Jesus' criticism of the Pharisees, Mark 7. 8-23 ; Matt. 
12. 22-45. 

Read Mark 3. 20, 21, 31-35; Luke 4. 16-30; Matt 10. 



CHAPTER XV 



JESUS AND HIS FRIENDS 



The inner 
circle of 
friends 



Jesus' 
desire for 
fellowship 



One of the outstanding features in Jesus' life is the 
group of his friends and disciples. At the very beginning 
of his ministry we find these figures. According to the 
first chapter of John, Jesus meets his first disciples in the 
following of the Baptist. It is to the home of one of these, 
Simon, that he goes when he returns to Galilee to begin 
his ministry, and here he invites Simon and his brother 
Andrew, together with the other two brothers, James and 
John, to join his circle (Mark i. 16-20). A little later a 
publican, Levi, is added to the number, who is probably 
the Matthew of Matt 9. 9 and 10. 3. From this time on 
we find Jesus always with a circle of followers. They are 
with him when the crowds follow him in Galilee. They 
accompany him on his journeys outside the province. They 
are the companions in the quiet days, and, though they 
protest against his going, they follow him to Jerusalem. 

What was the meaning of this special circle? It marked, 
for one thing, the friendly, deeply human nature of Jesus. 
There was in him not only a general love for humankind 
and a compassion for the needy, but this special capacity 
for friendship and the desire for it. "Ye are they that have 
continued with me in my temptations," he says (Luke 22. 
28). At the Last Supper together he says, "With desire I 
have desired to eat this passover with you before I suffer" 
(Luke 22. 15). At special moments in his life he takes 
with him the three who stood nearer to him apparently than 
the others — Peter and James and John (Mark 5. 37; 9. 2; 
14. 33) ; and in the garden of Gethsemane he misses the 
watchful sympathy which he craved in that hour of need 
(Mark 14. 37). 



JESUS AND HIS FRIENDS 101 

Deeper than this personal question was the purpose con- The purpose 
cerned with his work. Mark puts very simply this double £f a ^ onal 
purpose : "He appointed twelve, that they might be with 
him, and that he might send them forth to preach" (Mark 
3. 14). The stress of Jesus' work was upon his teaching. 
He must teach men the nature of the Kingdom, and what ' 
the life of the Kingdom was, and how to make ready for its 
coming. The changing throngs could not give him the 
best opportunity for such work. He must have men who 
could stay with him, whom he could lead by constant patient 
tuition not only into an understanding of his message but 
into a sharing of his spirit, into the life that he himself lived 
with God. They were to take his yoke upon them and learn 
of him (Matt 11. 29). That is the reason for their name, 
disciples or learners. 

The second purpose was to train these men for work — The training 
"that he might send them forth to preach." There was at ° preac e 
least one occasion upon which Jesus thus sent them forth. 
Matthew and Luke report this with extended statements 
of the instructions that Jesus gave (Matt 10. 1-42; Luke 10. 
1-20). As the statements agree in other respects, it may 
very well be that they refer to the same occasion, though 
Matthew speaks of twelve and Luke of seventy. How far 
beyond Jesus looked in this purpose we do not know. So 
much is clear, that in the early church this inner circle was 
regarded first of all as preachers, as those sent forth to 
proclaim the message. 

It is this double purpose of Jesus that explains the demand The demand 
that he made upon these disciples. It is not always clear 
in any given passage whether Jesus is speaking of what 
is required of all who would enter the Kingdom, or simply 
of what he asks of those who were to go with him. When 
he asks the rich young ruler to sell all his possessions and 
give them to the poor, it is because he wanted him to be- 
come one of his companions (Mark 10. 21). Upon the 
men of this inner circle he made a special demand. They 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



How the 
inner circle 
was formed 



The training 
and its fruit 



must leave their homes and their business and follow him 
(Mark I. 17. 18; 10. 28-30). They must be men of single 
and unswerving devotion (Luke 9. 57-62). They are to go 
forth teaching and healing, like their Master, taking no 
provision and trusting to hospitality where they go. They 
must be pure men and fearless, ready to suffer, and yet 
with faith that they are in their heavenly Father's care. 
And they must stand ready to sever any tie or face any 
foe as this loyalty may demand. 

The inner circle was not composed simply of those who 
came of their own accord. They were chosen by Jesus. 
In some cases men asked to be enrolled, like the scribe 
(Matt 8. 19), and the Gadarene demoniac whom Jesus 
healed (Mark 5. 18, 19). Not all were accepted, for Jesus 
sent the latter home. They were probably all Galilseans ex- 
cept Judas. We know, however, little of the circumstances 
of any of them except the first five named above. The 
limited group of the twelve was probably not fixed at the 
very first. But even after the selection of the twelve there 
was both a smaller and a larger group. The smaller group 
that was especially dear to Jesus was composed of Peter, 
James, and John. In the larger group there were men be- 
sides the twelve. Aside from the reference in Luke 10. 1, 
we read in Acts 1. 21 of others that were in the company 
of Jesus. There were certain women also who were mem- 
bers of the company for at least a part of the time — Mary 
Magdalene, Joanna the wife of Chuzas, Susanna, and others, 
who assisted also in meeting the expenses of the traveling 
group (Luke 8. 1-3). Some of the women followed him 
later to Jerusalem and we find them present at his death 
(Mark 15. 40, 41). 

The Galilaean ministry showed less and less promise of 
permanent fruit, and Jesus turned more and more to the 
training of the inner circle. The final issue justified his 
plan. It was not an easy task. He had to lament their 
hardness of heart, their slowness to see the real spirit of 



JESUS AND HIS FRIENDS 103 

his work, his real aim. But in the end he won. Only one 
of the number failed him. Even the shock of his death 
could not overthrow their conviction. After the first few 
days we find them rallying the other disciples and stand- 
ing forth before the people who had put Jesus to death 
as a malefactor, declaring their faith in him as the promised 
Messiah. We try in vain to imagine what those weeks and 
months meant during which Jesus gave himself to this little 
group. There were long days when they traveled together 
or remained in quiet retirement, when he poured forth 
for their ears alone the wealth of his teaching. More im- 
portant still must have been the deepening impress of his 
personality, his tenderness and sympathy, his courage in 
face of every danger and disappointment, his simple steady 
faith in God, his deep sense of the Father's presence and 
his fellowship with the Father. There is one fact that shows 
as no other what the power of his person must have been: 
These men who walked and talked and ate and slept with 
him in that simple human fellowship were the ones who 
declared when he was gone that he was Master and Lord 
and King. 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

Read Matt 10. 1-42 and Luke 10. 1-20. On this basis state (1) 
what the work of the disciples was to be as they went out; (2) 
what qualities of character he demanded of them. 

Make a list of the friends of Jesus outside of these immediate 
disciples, and mention any homes where he was wont to be en- 
tertained. 



CHAPTER XVI 
TURNING POINTS 



Early 
popularity 



Opposition 
from Phar- 
isees and 
Herodians 



We can now see the rough outline of the course of events 
in Jesus' ministry. The period of popularity came first, the 
time when the crowds thronged about him wherever he 
went, following him out even to desert places. The quickly 
spreading reports brought the people not only from thickly 
settled Galilee, but from Judaea to the south and beyond 
Jordan to the east and the districts about Tyre and Sidon 
to the north (Mark 3. 7, 8). There were various reasons 
for this. John the Baptist had already stirred the people 
and they were ready to listen. Many were moved without 
doubt by Jesus' message. But there were less creditable 
reasons too. They hailed him as a healer and worker of 
signs. 

Side by side with this popularity there were from the 
beginning misunderstanding and criticism and opposition. 
The opposition came from the Pharisaic party, headed by 
their professional teachers, the scribes. On the part of the 
latter there was jealousy, on the part of both the opposition 
to a religion that was directly opposed to the authority of 
law and tradition for which they stood. Meanwhile Jesus 
realized how little real understanding the people showed. 
Even his family and friends looked upon him as one beside 
himself. He confounded the Pharisees at first, but they 
persisted in the attack. They charged him with being in 
league with the devil. Leaders from Jerusalem came down 
to watch him, perhaps sent by the Sanhedrin (Mark 7. 1). 
These accused him of violating the rules of their religion 
and so sought to stir up the people against him. And finally 
opposition came from another quarter. The Jewish lead- 
ers got in touch with adherents of Herod (Mark 3. 6). 
104 



TURNING POINTS 105 

Herod had put John to death, why should he not lay hold 
of this new disturber ? He himself had begun to ask about 
Jesus, and to wonder superstitiously whether this were not 
John come to life again. 

Meanwhile the tide was turning with the people. The Desertion by 
opposition of the leaders was taking effect. Jesus had re- the peopIe 
fused to listen to their clamor for signs or let himself become 
a mere healer. Some perception of his real message must 
have come to them; it was not what they wanted to hear. 
The fourth Gospel preserves a tradition of how the crisis 
came. Together with the first three Gospels, it tells the 
story of how Jesus fed the multitude, moved by pity for 
the crowds that had gathered, hungry and far from home. 
Such a deed stirred them with enthusiasm and they wanted 
to make him king (John 6. 15). It showed how little his 
teaching had accomplished, how hopeless the task was of 
doing anything with the populace. What John states the 
other Gospels imply. Matthew and Luke give his lament 
over Capernaum, Bethsaida, and Chorazin. These had been 
the center, of his work. Here he had done his preaching 
and healing. But the repentance that he had looked for 
had not come. "Woe unto thee, Chorazin ! woe unto thee, 
Bethsaida! for if the mighty works had been done in 
Tyre and Sidon which were done in you, they would have 
repented long ago in sackcloth and ashes" (Matt 11. 20-24; 
compare Luke 10. 13-15). 

And so there came the first turning point in Jesus' plan Decision to 
of work. He decided to leave Galilee. On the one hand 
was the failure of his appeal to the people. On the other, 
the danger that threatened from Herod. The leaders of 
church and state were both lying in wait for him. How he 
regarded the latter is shown by a passage which Luke has , 
preserved, though he assigns it to a later time (Luke 13. 
3 I_ 33)- Some Pharisees had told him of the danger from 
Herod. His answer was : "Go and say to that fox, Behold 
I cast out demons and perform cures to-day and to-mor- 



io6 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The faithful 
circle 



Did Jesus 
turn to the 
Gentiles? 



row, and the third day I am perfected. Nevertheless I must 
go on my way to-day and to-morrow and the day follow- 
ing." It was not a counsel of fear that moved him to leave 
Galilee. His life was in God's care who had planned its 
"to-day and to-morrow and the day following." But neither 
would he be reckless of danger and tempt God (Matt 4. 

5-7). 

But while he had not moved the people to repentance 
or won them to his message, his ministry had not been a 
failure. Side by side with his denunciation of the cities 
there is his thanksgiving for those who had seen and be- 
lieved : "I thank thee, O Father, Lord of heaven and earth, 
that thou didst hide these things from the wise and under- 
standing, and didst reveal them unto babes" (Matt 11. 25). 
During these days Jesus had gathered around him the circle 
of disciples, and these now went with him on his journey. 
Here was his work for the next weeks, to use the quiet of 
the days thus spent together for the instruction and training 
of these men upon whom so much was to depend. 

The course of their wandering, according to Mark, was 
northward from Galilee through the regions about Tyre and 
Sidon, then southward again to the Sea of Galilee and down 
to Decapolis, probably passing on the east side of the lake. 
This journey into Gentile lands raises the question of Jesus' 
relations to those outside of Israel. Was this another turn- 
ing point from Israel to the Gentiles ? The one incident that 
we have from Jesus' stay in the region of Tyre and Sidon 
points the other way (Mark 7. 24-30; Matt 15. 21-28). 
Jesus had entered a house and did not wish his presence 
known. His fame had reached these parts, however, as 
appears from the statement that among the crowds in Gali- 
lee there had been visitors from these districts of Tyre 
and Sidon. And so a woman, a Gentile, who heard of his 
presence, searched him out and implored his help for her 
daughter. According to Matthew's report, Jesus at first 
was silent, and then in answer to her persistence said: 



TURNING POINTS 107 

"I was not sent but unto the lost sheep of the house of 
Israel. But she came and worshiped him, saying, Lord, 
help me. And he answered and said, It is not meet to take 
the children's bread and cast it to the dogs. But she said, 
Yes, Lord: for even the dogs eat of the crumbs which fall 
from their master's table." The harshness of Jesus' answer 
is more apparent than real. The term he used for the 
Gentiles was not the opprobrious epithet, "dogs," but the 
diminutive, "little dogs" — a rather playful term. But though 
he yielded to the woman and praised her faith, yet there 
remains his first unwillingness, so unlike his usual attitude, 
and his statement that he was sent only to the Israelites. 

How did Jesus conceive his relation to those outside of Jesus' work 
Israel? Did he proclaim a kingdom that was only for ^ae!' 
Israel? We must discriminate in our answer. Jesus felt 
that his own mission was to Israel, and when he sent the 
twelve out upon their special mission he limited them in 
the same way: "Go not into any way of the Gentiles, and 
enter not into any city of the Samaritans" (Matt 10. 5, 6). 
Just what Jesus' reason for this was we cannot say with 
certainty. It may have been a limitation of territory, that 
he did not wish to work outside of the bounds he had set. 
He did not refuse to help Gentiles as such, for he had 
already healed the centurion's servant (Matt 8. 5-13), and 
the Samaritan leper was cleansed as freely as the others 
(Luke 17. 11-19). There may have been the conviction that 
Israel, the people of the law and of special privilege, must 
first be called to repentance. How could he expect a re- 
sponse from the Gentiles, when Israel did not answer to his 
message-? 

One thing is clear — there was no national limitation in His Kingdom 
Jesus' thought of the Kingdom. John had declared that umversal 
membership in Israel was not enough (Matt 3. 8, 9). Jesus 
approved and went farther. He promises deliverance not 
from the empire of Rome but from the kingdom of evil. 
And the Kingdom is to belong not to Jews or to Greeks, 



108 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

but to the poor in spirit, the meek, the merciful, the pure 
in heart (Matt 5. 3-9). Moreover, it is the idea of God 
that rules Jesus' thinking and not that of the Kingdom. And 
God is not the Lord of Israel, but the Father of all men. 
Neither in the nature of God nor in Jesus' conception of 
religion is there anything national or limited. His religion 
is universal. 

Whatever the reason for limiting his work to Israel, 
Jesus' own attitude was not limited in its sympathies. 
He rejoiced over the faith of the pagan centurion and 
the Syrophoenician woman, and over the Samaritan leper 
that came back to speak his gratitude (Luke 7. 1-10; 17. 
11-19). His own experience showed him Israel's refusal 
and the open hearts outside his people. He condemned 
the Jews with examples taken from the Gentiles, Nineveh 
and the Queen of Sheba, Naaman and the widow of 
Sarepta, and the Samaritan who proved the neighbor to 
the man that fell among thieves (Matt 12. 41, 42; Luke 4. 
25-27; Luke 10. 30-35). For the most part the examples 
come in the latter part of his ministry, when his heart was 
moved alike by the response that he found among individual 
Gentiles and Samaritans whom he touched, and by the un- 
responsiveness of Israel. It is in the last Jerusalem days 
that he speaks of the temple as "a house of prayer for all 
the nations," and declares in the parable of the vineyard, 
"The kingdom of God shall be taken away from you, and 
shall be given to a nation bringing forth the fruits thereof" 
(Mark 11. 17; Matt 21. 43). Even before this he had 
said, when praising the centurion's faith, "Many shall come 
from the east and the west, and shall sit down with Abra- 
ham, and Isaac, and Jacob, in the kingdom of heaven; but 
the sons of the kingdom shall be cast forth into the outer 
darkness" (Matt 8. 11, 12). The great commission, there- 
fore, which Matthew reports as being given by the risen 
Christ, is in harmony with Jesus' principles: "Go ye there- 
fore, and make disciples of all the nations" (Matt 28. 19). 



TURNING POINTS 



109 



The second turning point in Jesus' work that fell within 
these days came at Csesarea Philippi (Mark 8. 27-38). It 
marked, not a change in his plans, but a stage in their 
progress. It probably fell within the later days of this 
period of wandering. Jesus had turned back again after 
having come south to Decapolis, and had led his company 
far to the north, where lay the city of Csesarea Philippi 
among the headwaters of the Jordan. Here came perhaps 
the greatest hour in Jesus' ministry. The cities of Galilee 
had not turned at his preaching. The established forces of 
his native land were against him, Pharisees on the one hand, 
Herodians on the other. His life was in danger. He must 
have been considering before this the road to Jerusalem 
and what it would mean for him. He had turned from 
other work to give himself to these men. He had asserted 
no claims. He had lived with them and taught them and 
loved them. Did they understand him? What did they 
think of him? Would they be true to him? It was one 
thing to call him Master at the height of his popu- 
larity. What would they say about the fugitive and wan- 
derer ? 

Here at last he puts them to the test. "Who do men say 
that I am? And they told him, saying, John the Baptist; 
and others, Elijah; but others, One of the prophets. And 
he asked them, But who say ye that I am ? Peter answereth 
and saith unto him, Thou art the Christ." It was no 
allegiance of lips that Jesus wanted. It was no personal 
honor that he craved. Christ means Messiah, Anointed 
One, but it was not this title that he wished. He had 
brought them to see that the hope of Israel lay in him, in 
what he was and what he stood for. They had much yet 
to learn, but he had bound them to himself; and they had 
made the confession not in some hour of triumph when the 
multitudes wondered at his healings, but here in his hour 
of loneliness and reversal. It was the moral and spiritual 
power of his own person which had wrought this. 



The crisis 
at Caesarea 
Philippi 



The 
confession 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The meaning 
of the 
confession 



The first 
proclamation 



It is not easy to overestimate the importance of this 
scene which Mark has given us so simply. It has been 
called the hour of Christianity's birth. The Christian reli- 
gion has always been more than a sum of teachings coming 
from its founder, or an ideal of life set forth by him. He 
himself has been the center, as one in whom men put their 
trust, upon whom they built their hopes. It was the first 
Christian confession. It was, indeed, the beginning of the 
Christian Church. 

The story of Caesarea Philippi makes certain one other 
fact — that Jesus had not previously proclaimed himself as 
Messiah or allowed himself thus to be proclaimed. Our 
Gospels here state explicitly : "Then charged he the dis- 
ciples that they should tell no man that he was the Christ" 
(Matt 16. 20). Later he publicly proclaimed himself as 
Messiah by the mode of his entrance into Jerusalem ; but 
that was at the close. It is true that there are earlier 
references to the Messiahship on the lips of Jesus or accepted 
by him from others; but it must be remembered that the 
Gospels were written not to give the record of Jesus' life in 
chronological order, but to set him forth as Messiah and 
Saviour, that men might believe on him. It was natural, 
therefore, that the writers should use these terms in the 
earlier as well as latter part of his ministry, just as we find 
them indifferent to the order of time in arranging their 
materials, whether of works or teaching. 



DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

Read John 6. Note the difference in the style of Jesus' speech 
as reported here, and the difference in circumstances and form of 
Peter's confession. Note, however, the similar outline of events, 
giving in order Jesus' popularity, his withdrawal for a time, the 
falling away, and the confession of Peter. 

The woes over the cities: read Matt II. 20-25; Luke 10. 13-15. 
21. Note that these cities have not only been reduced to ruins, but 
that even their site has been a matter of dispute. 

As to Jesus' wanderings, read Mark 7. 24-31 ; Matt 15. 21-28. 



TURNING POINTS hi 

As to Jesus and the Gentiles, read Matt 8. 5-13; Luke 17. n-19; 

Matt 12. 41, 42; Luke 4. 25-27; 10. 30-35. 

As to the confession at Caesarea Philippi, read Mark 8. 27-38; 
Matt 16. 13-20. 

Read the story of the feeding of the multitudes given in Mark 
8. 1-9. Compare with that of Mark 6. 30-44. Note points of 
resemblance and contrast. Some scholars consider these stories 
doublets, describing the same event with such changes as might 
easily come from oral tradition. Give reasons for or against this 
view. Would the disciples have asked the question of Mark 8. 4 
if the feeding of the five thousand had occurred but a little while 
before? 



CHAPTER XVII 



The third 
turning point 



Why Jesus 
turned to 
Jerusalem 



Jesus true to 
his principles 



FACING JERUSALEM 

Two events were noted in the last chapter that formed 
turning points in Jesus' work — his turning from Galilee and 
his acceptance of the title of Messiah. To these there is 
now joined a third: Jesus decides to go to Jerusalem and 
foretells his suffering and death. "He began to teach them, 
that the Son of man must suffer many things, and be rejected 
by the elders, and the chief priests, and the scribes, and be 
killed, and after three days rise again. And he spake the 
saying openly" (Mark 8. 31, 32). 

We do not know when Jesus formed this resolution to 
go to Jerusalem. He saw it apparently as the will of his 
Father, which he read in the course that his life had taken. 
Other doors were closed to him. In Galilee, where his 
work had begun with such promise, there were now the 
conspiring Pharisees and Herodians, and a people that had 
turned from him. To go to Gentile lands was to give up 
his mission. Only the way to Jerusalem was open. There 
he would make the last appeal to his people. The issue of 
that appeal, however, he clearly foresaw, and for that he 
had to prepare his disciples. The spirit that had opposed 
him in Galilee was far stronger in the city. He had met 
its emissaries, who had come down to censure and oppose 
(Mark 7. 1). With them he would find the priestly party, 
with whom he had as little in common as with the Pharisees. 
He knew that his journey meant death. 

The journey, though perhaps a change in his plans, was 
not a change in his spirit or method. Here, again, the 
story of the temptation outlines his later life. The finger of 
God pointed to Jerusalem, it was his to go. His duty was 
not to save himself, but to trust God; not to find his own 
way, but to obey. If God's way led to Jerusalem and death, 



FACING JERUSALEM 113 

then suffering and death were a part of God's plan and of 
his work. His death, then, was to accomplish what his life 
had failed to do. Some glimpse of the greatness of his 
spirit comes to us as we look at this step. There is his 
independence of thought. His spiritual insight is his own; 
it is not dependent upon others. Neither the Old Testament 
nor the teachers of his day knew anything of a suffering 
Messiah. Yet at the moment when he takes his place before 
his disciples as Messiah he begins to declare that he is a 
Messiah that must serve and suffer and die. 

Though the traditional thought of the Messiah did not Suggestions 
help him here, he seems to have found guidance from other j^jg^ 
sources. He had seen what had happened to John and 
read in it his own end (Matt 17. 9-13). That had been the 
fate of faithful messengers in the past, as he told them later 
at Jerusalem (Matt 23. 29-36). He was not to escape it. 
It is not unlikely too that he found light and help in the 
great words of the writer of the second part of the book 
of Isaiah. He had gained inspiration from this source 
before. In this book were the words that he had read in 
the synagogue at Nazareth and had made the program of 
his life (Isa 61. 1, 2) ; and another verse from this writer 
echoes in the answer that he sent back to John (Isa 58. 6; 
see Luke 4. 18, 19; 7. 22). In this same book is the 
wonderful passage about the suffering servant. From the 
very beginning it was applied to Jesus by the church. He 
himself seems to have found in it light upon the strange 
path that he was now to take. That it was not regarded as 
a Messianic passage by the Jews would have made no differ- 
ence to him. Two of its great thoughts reappear in his 
words in these days. First, he called himself a servant. 
"The Son of man came not to be ministered unto, but to 
minister" (Mark 10. 45; Isa 52. 13). "I am in the midst 
of you as he that serveth" (Luke 22. 2y). Second, he 
declared that he was to "give his life a ransom for many'' 
(Mark 10. 45). The same thought appears in the prophet; 



ii4 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The transfig- 
uration meant 
a preparation 



Jesus 
prepares 
his disciples 



in some way the suffering of the servant is to be for the 
healing and forgiveness of men : "He was wounded for our 
transgressions, he was bruised for our iniquities; the chas- 
tisement of our peace was upon him; and with his stripes 
we are healed" (Isa 53. 5). 

The story of the transfiguration seems to come imme- 
diately after the confession at Csesarea Philippi and before 
the journey toward Jerusalem. It was Jesus' own prepara- 
tion for the hard days that were before him, and it has a 
certain correspondence with the experience at the baptism 
and in the wilderness. In this case, as then, he was passing 
through a period of conflict. What he had settled then in 
principle he was now to put to its last application. The 
way of obedience and trust and service was to become the 
way of death. It was an hour of struggle, and, as was his 
custom, he went apart to pray, taking with him Peter and 
James and John. What that hour of prayer meant, how 
he won his victory, and how the strength came to him from 
his Father we do not know, except that here too a voice 
came to him, and he knew that this course that he had 
chosen was his Father's will. But even the dulled disciples, 
heavy with sleep, awoke at last and knew that God was in 
the place. And so Jesus gathered strength, as in the wilder- 
ness and the garden, for the days that lay before him ( Mark 
9. 2-8; Matt 17. 1-8; Luke 9. 28-36). 

At no place do we see so clearly the work that Jesus 
wrought with his disciples. He did not simply tell them 
that he must go to Jerusalem and die. He began patiently a 
course of instruction. We do not know how long a time 
elapsed from this declaration until their actual arrival at 
Jerusalem. It seems to have been deferred long enough to 
give opportunity for their training and to insure his presence 
there at the time of the great feast of the passover. It was 
no easy test to which he subjected them. They had fol- 
lowed him on his wanderings after the tide had turned 
against him. That was hard enough. That he accepted the 



FACING JERUSALEM 115 

role of Messiah must have stirred a tumult of hope and 
ardent imagination in their hearts. Now he declared that 
his Messiahship meant suffering and death. No wonder 
that Peter protested. Jesus' answer is significant: "Get 
thee behind me, Satan; for thou mindest not the things of 
God, but the things of men" (Mark 8. 23)- We might 
translate the words, "You are not thinking God's way, but 
man's way." There is a certain passion in Jesus' response 
that suggests a deeply stirred soul. It seems to reveal the 
struggle through which he had just passed. Jesus saw, 
indeed, in the suggestion of Peter that he should turn from 
all this, the same subtle tempting spirit of evil that he had 
faced in the forty days of temptation. Here, as there, Jesus 
perceived the real issue. It was no indifferent matter of 
ways and means. The whole principle of life was at stake. 
That principle he now set forth in sharp and paradoxical 
phrase : "Whosoever would save his life shall lose it ; and 
whosoever shall lose his life for my sake and the gospel's 
shall save it" ( Mark 8. 35 ) . 

The disciples stood the test. They followed him when The principle 
he turned toward Jerusalem. And yet he had to return to of service 

. . . and sacrifice 

his theme again and again, now to set forth his great prin- 
ciple of giving and serving, again to declare what it was to 
mean for his own life. They did not understand how such 
a fate could happen to the Messiah (Mark 9. 30-32). Since 
Jesus had declared himself as Messiah, the old popular 
dreams and hopes seemed to revive in them. They began 
disputing as to the relative positions they were to hold in 
his kingdom (Mark 9. 33-37). Two of them, James and 
John, boldly took the matter into their own hands and went 
to him, asking that he should promise them first and second 
places in the new realm (Mark 10. 35-45). All this he 
patiently met by his teaching. He called the twelve and 
put a child in the midst, teaching the lesson of humility. He 
laid down again his great life principle: "If any man would 
be first, he shall be last of all, and servant of all" (Mark 



n6 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The journey 
to Jerusalem 



The 
demand of 

discipleship 



9. 35; Matt 18. 1-5). There is more sorrow than anger in 
his rebuke of the sons of Zebedee. He points to his own 
example: "Which is greater, he that sitteth at meat, or he 
that serveth? is not he that sitteth at meat? but I am in the 
midst of you as he that serveth" (Luke 22. 27). 

There is little definite knowledge of the events of the 
last journey to Jerusalem. Here, as elsewhere, it is not 
certain except in a few cases, that the materials grouped 
together by the evangelists are in the right order of time. 
Luke gives us the picture of the Master leading on, fearless 
and with fixed purpose: "When the days were well-nigh 
come that he should be received up, he steadfastly set his 
face to go to Jerusalem" (Luke 9. 51). And Mark gives 
us the picture of the disciples: "And Jesus was going 
before them : and they were amazed ; and they that followed 
were afraid" (Mark 10. 32). 

Jesus' teaching during this period concerned not only the 
law of service and its meaning for his own life in the suffer- 
ing and death that awaited him; he also pointed out what 
the demand of discipleship was. Most of the sayings in 
which he demands the supreme surrender, the whole-hearted 
decision for himself and God, come within this period. His 
disciples were to be like men on their way to execution 
carrying their own cross; they were to come to him with 
their lives in their hands, ready to live the life or give it as 
might seem necessary (Mark 8. 34). Only so would they 
really find their life. And what else mattered in comparison 
with life. Better to lose all else, the right eye even, or the 
right hand, than to lose life itself (Mark 9. 43-48). And 
from his immediate followers he demanded absolute decision. 
There was no time for them to be making farewells or 
burying the dead. He wanted no men who tried to plow 
while looking back at the same time (Luke 9. 57-62). It 
was probably on this journey that he met the rich young 
ruler and asked him to give up his riches and join their 
company (Mark 10. 17-22). 



FACING JERUSALEM 117 

Two incidents are given us connected with Jesus' passing The healing 
through Jericho on this last trip to Jerusalem. One is the atJencho 
story of the healing of the blind beggar, Bartimaeus, that 
is, son of Timseus. It is the last deed of healing which is 
described to us. It happened probably as they were leaving 2. 
Jericho, though Luke sets it at their entrance. There was 
an accompanying crowd from the city. Learning the mean- 
ing of the excitement, the beggar raised his voice and called 
upon Jesus : "Thou son of David, have mercy on me." It 
was the cry to which Jesus was wont to respond, the cry of 
faith and need, a cry which rang only the louder when they 
tried to stop him. And Jesus healed him (Mark 10. 46-52). 

The other incident is that of Zacchaeus, a chief publican jesusand 
and rich (Luke 19. 1-10). What Jesus saw was not the the P ubUcan 
publican but the man, the man who could forget his wealth 
and station and dignity in his eagerness to see Jesus. That 
Jesus read his spirit aright is seen by the issue. To Jesus the 
publican declares : "The half of my goods I give to the poor ; 
and if I have wrongfully exacted aught of any man, I 
restore fourfold." It was but another instance of Jesus' 
open eye and ready welcome for that humility and earnest 
desire which were the open door to the kingdom. And 
though he was almost at the door of Jerusalem, with all its 
narrowness and watchful enmity, he did not hesitate to go 
in and lodge with this publican and sinner. Indeed, it is 
probable that he spent the Sabbath day with him, as his 
entrance into Jerusalem seems to have been on Sunday. 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

As to the impending suffering and death and its meaning, read 
Matt 17. 9-13; 23. 29-39; Isa 52. 13 to 53. 12. 

As to the transfiguration: Mark 9. 2-8; Matt 17. 1-8; Luke 9. 
28-36. 

As to the principle of service and sacrifice : Mark 9. 33-37 ; 10. 35- 
45 ; Luke 22. 24-27. 

The predictions of suffering and death: Mark 8. 31-38; 9. 30-32; 
10. 32-34- 

The Jericho incidents: Mark 10. 46-52; Luke 19. 1-10. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
CLOSING DAYS 



The accounts 
of the last 



Three 
features 



Jericho to 
Bethany 



We have noted in our study how fragmentary the records 
of Jesus' life are. The opening events are reported quite 
fully, perhaps because they occurred at Capernaum, the 
home of Peter and other disciples. For the long period of 
his wanderings after leaving Galilee there is little that can 
be definitely placed. Now, in the last week of his life, the 
accounts suddenly become very full again. In the four 
Gospels about one third of the space is given to these events, 
inclusive of the resurrection stories. There are several 
reasons for this. The events took place in a great city 
before many eyes. The city was the home of John Mark, 
probably the first writer of a complete gospel story. More 
important, however, is the fact that these were days of 
intensest interest to the disciples, and these events became 
central for the faith of the church. What happened at this 
time sank deep into their hearts. Moreover, the days were 
crowded with teaching and incident. 

Three outstanding features mark Jesus' work: First, he 
asserts quietly but unmistakably his Messianic claim. Sec- 
ond, he speaks a final and urgent message of warning. 
Third, he openly enters into conflict with the leaders of the 
people, scribes, Pharisees, and priests. By the first and 
third steps in this course, instead of shunning the danger, 
he himself helps to hasten the end. 

The journey from Jericho was probably made in the 
early morning before the heat of the day came on. It was 
a steep road, rising some thirty-five hundred feet in the 
fifteen miles of distance. There must have been a score or 
more in Jesus' company. Besides the twelve there were 
a number of women (Luke 8. 1-3; Matt 20. 20) ; and there 
118 



CLOSING DAYS 119 

were probably other disciples accompanying. Jerusalem was 
not a strange city to Jesus. Whatever may be the case as 
to the ministry in Jerusalem, recorded by the fourth Gos- 
pel, as a loyal Jew Jesus would have made at least an an- 
nual trip thither to one of the feasts, such a trip as that 
taken when he was twelve years of age. A couple of 
miles outside the city lay the village of Bethany. Accord- 
ing to John 11. 1, it was here that Mary and Martha 
lived, and at their house the company probably now 
waited till preparations could be made for the entry into 
the city. 

There is a passage in Zech. 9. 9 which describes the The meaning 
entry of the Messianic King into Jerusalem: "Rejoice oftheentr y 
greatly, O daughter of Zion; shout, O daughter of Jeru- 
salem: behold, thy king cometh unto thee; he is just, and 
having salvation ; lowly, and riding upon an ass, even upon 
a colt the foal of an ass." With evident purpose Jesus 
sends to a nearby village and has brought to him an ass. 
On this a coat is spread and, mounting it, he rides into the 
city. For those who might understand, it was the first 
public assertion of his Messiahship. At the same time it 
set forth the manner of Messiah that he was, coming humble, 
unarmed, upon a lowly beast. 

How far the multitudes perceived this we do not know. The reception 
John says (12. 16) that even the disciples did not under- j^^de 
stand this at first. So much at least they understood, that 
this was their Master's entrance into the city of which he 
was to be King. Meanwhile the people that filled the city 
in thronging crowds at the passover time, coming not only 
from Judaea and Galilee but from parts far beyond, had 
heard of Jesus' presence and came out to meet him. What- 
ever else was present, the dominant note was enthusiasm. 
They joined the disciples in spreading garments and 
branches in the way, and raising the cry : "Hosanna ; 
Blessed is he that cometh in the name of the Lord : Blessed 
is the kingdom that cometh, the kingdom of our father 



120 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

David: Hosanna in the highest" (Mark n. i-ii). Before 
this he had charged with silence any who would have 
greeted him as Messiah. Now he had no word to say, ex- 
cept to respond to the displeasure of the Pharisees at this 
demonstration by declaring, "If these shall hold their peace, 
the stones will cry out" (Luke 19. 39, 40). 
cleansing Unwilling as yet to trust himself to his foes, Jesus with- 

drew for the night to the quiet and safety of Bethany. Ap- 
parently, his first visit on the next day was to the temple. 
Here he saw again what had probably often stirred his 
soul. His work now brought him into contact with the 
priestly party, and the opposition is as sharp as with the 
Pharisees. If religion was a matter of form and pride with 
the Pharisees, it was a matter of position and power and 
profit with the priests. To retain its place, the priestly 
party had shown itself quite ready to enter into bargains 
with the "Romans. One of their sources of profit was 
the cause of what now met Jesus' eyes. In kindly 
consideration for the poor, the law provided that a pair 
of doves would be acceptable as an offering from these 
•(Lev 5. 5-10). The temple party found this a chance for 
profitable traffic. Still another chance came with the re- 
quired payment of the temple tax. For this only the 
coins were accepted that Israel herself had once minted, and 
Roman money had to be exchanged for these. So the 
temple courts were filled with the money-changers and 
sellers of doves, all this being a monopoly of the priests. 
Stirred with anger, Jesus drove them out. "Is it not writ- 
ten," he said, "My house shall be called a house of prayer 
for all nations? But ye have made it a den for robbers" 
(Mark II. 17). Apparently, his righteous anger joined 
to the approval of the multitudes left them no desire for 
resistance, nor did they dare to call the temple officers. 
"They could not find what they might do; for the people 
all hung upon him, listening" (Luke 19. 47, 48; Mark 11. 
15-19). 



CLOSING DAYS 121 

The second aspect of these last days of Jesus' ministry The lament 
is the note of warning. It appears in the double lament over ^^ e 
Jerusalem. The first of these Luke gives us as spoken 
by Jesus at the time of the triumphal entry. As he drew 
nigh the city, he wept over it. He was about to make his 
last appeal, but the city did not recognize its day of visi- 
tation. Soon the day of warfare would come, and its foes 
would overthrow it (Luke 19. 41-44). The other is placed 
by Matthew after the woes against the Pharisees. Its beau- 
tiful words show his distress for the city and his confidence 
as to his ultimate triumph: "O, Jerusalem, Jerusalem, that 
killeth the prophets, and stoneth them that are sent unto 
her ! how often would I have gathered thy children together, 
even as a hen gathereth her chickens under her wings, and 
ye would not! Behold, your house is left unto you deso- 
late! For I say unto you, ye shall not see me henceforth, 
till ye shall say, Blessed is he that cometh in the name of 
the Lord" (Matt 23. 37-39). 

The same message is given in several parables. The Parables of 
first of these is placed by Luke on the last journey to wanung 
Jerusalem (19. 11-27). Matthew's parable of the talents 
may be simply a variant of the same (25. 14-30). Luke's 
story of the nobleman who went to get his kingdom is the 
history of Archelaus. At his death Herod had bequeathed 
Judsea and Samaria to his son Archelaus. The latter had to 
go to Rome to have his title to the realm confirmed. There 
he was opposed by an embassy from Judsea, against whom, 
however, he was successful. i\ll this Jesus uses to enforce 
his lesson of stewardship. He is the King who is to depart 
and leave the interests of the Kingdom in their trust. 
And they are to answer for the use they make of their 
pounds. 

The parable of the fig tree is a similar warning, addressed F »s tiee and 
not to the disciples but to the nation. Israel was the un- 
fruitful fig tree having its last opportunity. "Let it alone 
this year also, till I shall dig about it and dung it ; and if it 



122 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



Days of 
conflict 



The tribute 
money 



bear fruit thenceforth, well; but if not, thou shalt cut it 
down" (Luke 13. 1-9). The story of the cursing of the 
fig tree is nothing more than this same parable acted in- 
stead of spoken (Mark 11. 12-14, 20_2 3)- Jesus sees a 
fig tree in full leaf, but finds no fruit as he comes in search. 
He pronounces a curse upon it, and they find it withered 
as they pass the next day. As a mere act of petulance this 
is inconceivable. Some have thought that the whole story 
as found in Matthew and Mark grew out of Luke's parable 
just noted. The other alternative would be to conceive it 
as the same parable put into action, as the old prophets 
were wont to do. The parable of the Lord's vineyard is 
more a parable of judgment than of warning. The figure 
was familiar (Isa 5. 1; Psa 80. 8). Israel was like a 
vineyard intrusted by its master to the care of husbandmen 
who were to make some return of its fruits. Jehovah had 
been sending his servants, the prophets, and looking to 
Israel for fruitage. Instead they had beaten and slain them. 
Now he had sent his Son, and they would put him to 
death. There could be but one end — that the vineyard 
should be taken from them and given to others. Here again, 
with the warning, is the assertion of Jesus' own Messiahship 
(Mark 12. 1-12). 

The third outstanding aspect of these last days was Jesus' 
open conflicts with his enemies. Again and again they 
tried to entrap him. "By what authority doest thou these 
things?" they asked him (Mark 11. 27-33). He met them 
wJth another question: "The baptism of John, was it from 
heaven, or from men?" His own authority, he felt, was 
like that of John, from God himself. But they dared not 
answer his simple question. To say from God was to con- 
demn themselves, for they had not believed John; to say 
from men would stir against them the people who held John 
a prophet. 

Their second question seemed more cleverly planned: 
"Is it lawful to give tribute unto Caesar or not?" (Mark 12. 



CLOSING DAYS 123 

13-17). To say yes would arouse the people; to say no 
would give them ground for lodging charges with the 
Romans. Jesus' action was as simple as it was unanswer- 
able. He called for a coin and asked them what image it 
bore. They answered, "Caesar's." "Render unto Caesar 
the things that are Caesar's, and unto God the things that 
are God's," was his reply. His answer was not an effort 
to divide matters between church and state, nor yet a mere 
clever device to confound them. They were quibbling; his 
whole passion was to have men yield to God the things 
that were God's. 

The incident with the Sadducees shows how Jesus could The question 
take a trifling, absurd query and lift it to moral and spir- sadducees 
itual heights (Mark 12. 18-27). They brought him the im- 
possible and foolish case of a woman who, in accordance 
with the old law (Deut 25. 5-10), had been married in turn 
to seven brothers. "In the resurrection whose wife shall 
she be of them?" they asked. It was their effort to laugh 
out of court the doctrine of the resurrection, in which they 
did not believe. Jesus left their absurdities to one side. 
He simply replied: "You do not know the Scriptures or 
the power of God: and as to the life to come, have you 
not read the word, I am the God of Abraham, and the God 
of Isaac, and the God of Jacob? God is not the God of 
the dead, but of the living." 

The climax of his controversy was reached in the seven The seven 
woes in which he denounced the Pharisees (Matt 23. 13- woes 
36) . Matthew, who gives them most fully, is probably right 
in placing them here. Here, at the close of his ministry, 
he shows forth the inner spirit of that whole system of rules 
and formalism into which the religion of his people had de- 
generated. These words could have only one result — an 
open enmity that should end in his death. 

No passage in the Gospels is more difficult to interpret Jesus' 
than the thirteenth chapter of Mark and its parallels. Jesus £"^ s t0 
and his disciples were leaving the temple, the splendid 



I2 4 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



Jewish 
apocalypses 



Jesus and 
apocalyptic 
thought 



building which was the pride of all the Jews. Deeply 
impressed, one of them said to him, "Teacher, behold, what 
manner of stones and what manner of building." Then 
Jesus made the startling answer which was the basis of one 
of the charges made against him in his trial : "There shall 
not be left here one stone upon another, which shall not 
be thrown down." A double thought was probably in 
Jesus' mind: first, that city and temple were doomed to 
destruction at the hands of Israel's enemies; second, that 
the temple and what it stood for was to make place for 
a truer faith. The natural question of the disciples was, 
"When shall these things be? and what shall be the sign 
when these things are all about to be accomplished?" Then 
follows a discourse, different from the customary direct and 
simple teachings of the Master, describing the woes that 
are to come and the strange signs that are to herald them. 

The whole passage resembles strongly a class of writ- 
ings well known among the Jews at this time, called 
apocalyptic. An apocalypse is an uncovering of secret 
things, especially of the future. The books of Daniel and 
Revelation are examples within our Bible. The minds of 
the people were filled with apocalyptic ideas at this time. 
The writings were generally marked by three features : ( I ) 
a certain circle of ideas including those of judgment, resur- 
rection, tl\e overthrow of the devil and his angels, the de- 
struction of the earth, and the appearance of a new heaven 
and a new earth; (2) the discussion of times and seasons 
and the signs of these events; (3) imaginative descriptions 
of the glories of the new age. 

If we are to judge Jesus' relation to all this, we must 
look at his teaching as a whole, remembering how easily 
in individual cases his teachings might be unconsciously 
changed by those who handed them down in the years 
before they were written out. In his clear and definite 
teaching he shows some agreement with this apocalyptic 
thought and some differences. (1) Jesus believed with these 



CLOSING DAYS 125 

writers that the rule of God was coming and that there was 
to be a new earth. That was his teaching of the kingdom 
of God. (2) Jesus believed that he was to come again, 
and that he was to judge men. When he knew that 
suffering and death were before him, he began at the same 
time to declare that he should come in glory and that he 
was to be the judge of men (Mark 8. 38; Matt 25. 31-46; 
26. 64). (3) He believed that this coming was near at hand 
(Matt 10. 22; Mark 9. 1). But (4) the whole spirit and 
tone of Jesus' teaching was different. Although, like the 
early church and Paul, he thought that the coming was near 
at hand, yet he did not deal in figures and calculations. 
"But of that day or that hour knoweth no one, not even the 
angels in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father" (Mark 
13. 32). (5) His interest was not in drawing pictures of 
physical glories. A fragment from an ancient writer shows 
us what some of these dreams were. In this Jesus is re- 
ported as having said : "The days will come in which vines 
shall grow having each ten thousand branches, and in each 
branch ten thousand twigs, and in each twig ten thousand 
shoots, and in every one of the shoots ten thousand clusters, 
and on every one of the clusters ten thousand grapes, and 
every grape when pressed will give five and twenty metretes 
of wine." Jesus did not talk of the future to bring such 
visions to men, but to strengthen them against coming 
trial and to call them to watchfulness .and earnestness. 

Many scholars believe that these words of Mark 13 be- Does this 
long only in part to Jesus. It may very well be that the jgg" s s ? ent 
question of the disciples led Jesus to speak of the future, 
to tell them of the days of trial that he foresaw, that he 
might forewarn and prepare, as well as to declare his own 
confidence in the future. With their own minds full of 
these apocalyptic hopes, the changes may easily have crept 
in, or even teachings have been added which they assumed 
to represent his thought. In the end we must fall back 
upon the body of Jesus' teachings and their unmistakable 



126 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

moral and spiritual emphasis, so different from the apoc- 
alyptic dreams that rilled men's minds at that time. 
The picture It was probably at this time that Jesus drew the great 

ju gmen judgment scene given in Matt 25. 31-46. Here, as in the 
other picture teaching of Jesus, it is a mistake to seek a 
special meaning in every detail. Two great truths stand 
out. The first is the fact of judgment. The second is the 
principle of judgment. Here nothing is said of nation- 
ality, Jewish or Greek, nothing of creeds or forms of prac- 
tice ; men are judged by the spirit of love and helpfulness, 
and the service done to the needy Jesus accounts as a serv- 
ice rendered to himself. 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

The Messianic King. Read Mark n. 1-11 ; Luke 19. 39, 40; Mark 
11. 15-19- 

Words of warning: Read Luke 19. 41-44 5 Matt 23. 37-39', Luke 
19. 11-27; Matt 25. 14-30; Luke 13. 1-9; Mark 11. 12-14, 20-23; 
Mark 12. 1-12. 

Conflicts: Read Mark II. 27-33; 12. 13-27; Matt 23. 1-36. 

The future: Read Mark 13; Matt 25. 31-46. 

State in your own language Jesus' charges against the Pharisees 
as given in Matt 23. 1-36. 






CHAPTER XIX 

THE LAST HOURS 

The last hours were at hand. No one knew it better The plot 
than Jesus. The elements of power were arrayed against 
him : on the one side the priestly party, or Sadducees, whom 
his deed at the temple had angered ; on the other the Phari- 
sees, with their leaders, the scribes, who had opposed him 
from the beginning. The two parties were usually bitterly 
opposed to each other; now they were ready to join hands 
(Mark 14. 1, 2 ; Matt 26. 1-5). For the present they feared 
the people, the crowds of the pilgrims who were present 
for the passover and who favored Jesus; but they were 
waiting their chance. Jesus had been spending his days 
during this last week in the city, teaching in the courts of 
the temple where the people gathered. The first night he 
had gone to his friends in Bethany, after that apparently 
to some house upon the Mount of Olives (Mark 11. 11; 
Luke 21. 37, 38). The circumstances gave Judas his op- 
portunity. A double motive probably prevailed with this 
disciple in the deed which has made his memory a shame. 
Like many others, he had been moved at first by the preach- 
ing of Jesus. But while the others of the twelve stood loyal, 
he could not meet the test when Jesus began to declare that 
his kingdom was not to mean earthly power and that suffer- 
ing and death impended. It is likely that a certain angry 
resentment at Jesus' course made his natural avarice more 
ready to respond when the temptation came to gain a re- 
ward by taking Jesus' foes to this place of his retirement. 
And so he bargained with them for his thirty pieces of 
silver (Mark 14. 10, 11). 

Mark and Matthew both give the incident of the anointing The anointing 
at this place (Mark 14. 3-9). It may have occurred that 
127 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The supper- 
was it the 



first day of Jesus' entry after he had returned to Bethany. 
John tells us that it was Mary of Bethany who brought 
the costly ointment and poured it over his head, breaking 
the bottle as though she would not have it subject after 
this to any common use. To the prosaic disciples it seemed 
a foolish, wasteful deed. Here, as so often, Jesus shows 
his appreciation of the finer aspects and deeper meanings 
of life as he rebukes them. For him it was a deed worthy 
to be told wherever his gospel was proclaimed. In this 
hour when he faced his great trial, such an act of tender 
and gracious love moved his heart. "She hath anointed 
my body beforehand for the burying." 

The last crowded days must have left Jesus little time 
for his disciples. With the end drawing near he felt the 
need of such time both for fellowship and for instruction. 
"With desire I have desired to eat this passover with you 
before I suffer," Luke reports him saying (22. 15). All 
the Gospels report in detail the last supper which they ate 
together. It was held in the upper room of the house of 
some friend in the city (Matt 26. 17-19). Whether this 
supper was the passover, scholars are not agreed. The 
synoptic Gospels state this definitely, but there are strong 
reasons to the contrary. Had this been the night of the 
passover, the Jewish leaders would not have been abroad, 
but would all have been at their homes, according to strict 
custom. Neither could any trial have been held on the 
following day, for the day was holy like a Sabbath day. 
In this case the right tradition seems to be that of the fourth 
Gospel, which definitely fixes the following day as the pass- 
over (John 13. 1, 29; 18. 28). In the symbolism of the 
early church the Lord's Supper was looked upon as the 
Christian passover, and that is the probable ground for the 
tradition as to date which the synoptic Gospels follow. 

There was one element of discord in the company that 
gathered about the table. No doubt Jesus had made more 
than one attempt to stem the change which he had seen 



THE LAST HOURS 129 

taking place in Judas in these last days. Now he saw that 
it had been in vain. Perhaps he wished to make a last 
appeal ; possibly, failing of that, to remove Judas from the 
company that he might have these hours in unmarred fel- 
lowship. The fourth Gospel states that Judas left during 
the evening. In any case, Jesus warns his disciples once 
more of the approaching danger by telling them that one 
of their own company should betray him, one that was 
taking food with him from the same dish. 

Then followed another lesson, a parable which was to be The new 
acted again and again in the long years to come (Mark 14. covenant 
22-25; Matt 26. 26-29; Luke 22. 15-20). As so often in 
the past, Jesus used a picture to set forth the truth, this 
time, however, putting it in action. Taking a piece of bread 
during the supper, he broke it and said, "This is my body." 
And giving them in turn the cup of wine, he said, "This 
is my blood of the new covenant, which is poured out for 
many." The act and the simple words were full of mean- 
ing. Here was another word of warning to prepare his 
disciples for his coming 'death. Here, again, was an inter- 
pretation of that death. Though the hatred and evil of 
men might bring it about, Jesus knew that his death was 
the will of the Father and for the saving of men. To the 
words, "poured out for many," Matthew adds "unto remis- 
sion of sins." Though the action of Jesus came so simply, 
there was evident deep solemnity and consciousness of what 
this meant. He spoke of a new covenant that he was estab- 
lishing. Long years before Jeremiah had spoken of such 
a day, when Jehovah was to write his law not upon tablets 
of stone but in the hearts of men. Jesus knew that this 
new day for men had come. The oldest record of these 
events comes not from the Gospels but from the apostle 
Paul, writing some twenty years after this time (1 Cor 11. 
23-25)- 

From the upper room the little company started out for a final 
the Mount of Olives where they had been spending the last warning 



130 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The praying 
in the garden 



Arrest, 
desertion, 
and denial 



few nights. Jesus' thought was still with his disciples. 
One had already deserted him. Despite all efforts to pre- 
pare them, he foresaw how it would be with the others. 
You shall all be offended in me, he told them. Peter, ready- 
as ever, insisted that he at least would be loyal. Jesus 
knew that the end was at hand. Before cock crow, he says 
to Peter, that is, before early morning, "Thou shalt deny 
me thrice" (Mark 14. 26-31). 

They had reached the Mount of Olives now and the place 
called Gethsemane. Jesus knew upon what errand Judas 
had gone. Flight would have been easy. His enemies did 
not care so much for his life as simply to be rid of him. 
But Jesus had settled long since where his path lay. Though 
there was no hesitation, there was, however, a shrinking 
and a deep anguish of spirit. It was not simply the horror 
of a terrible death. There was the deep concern for his 
disciples that had been weighing upon him, and for his 
people. For this hour he had prepared in the temptation. 
To this he had looked forward in that night of prayer on 
the mount of transfiguration. To these two great hours of 
struggle the third and hardest was now added. "My soul 
is exceeding sorrowful even unto death," he told the three 
disciples whom he had asked to watch with him. Prone 
on his face he prays. The passion of his soul trembles 
through his prayer: "If it be possible, let this cup pass 
away from me." Yet the deep undercurrent is the same 
as in that prayer which he taught his disciples. There is 
perfect confidence, and there is utter surrender to the will 
of God: "Abba, Father, . . . not what I will, but what 
thou wilt" (Mark 14. 32-42; Matt 26. 36-46; Luke 22. 
39-46). 

In the distance Jesus heard his enemies approaching. 
Worn out with the strain of the week, the disciples had 
slept while he prayed. While he was yet calling them, 
Judas came leading a band of soldiers and servants from 
the Pharisees and the priests. What Jesus foresaw took 



THE LAST HOURS 131 

place ; the disciples were panic-stricken. "They all left 
him and fled" (Mark 14. 43-52). Mark adds the curious 
incident of the young man who followed with only a linen 
cloth flung about him, and who fled naked when they tried 
to seize him. It is an interesting possibility that this was 
Mark himself, that the disciples had taken the Last Sup- 
per at his mother's home (see Acts 12. 12), and that the 
young man, awakening from sleep, had followed them. If 
so, then the suggestion is correct that we have in this 
anonymous reference "the monogram of the artist in a dark 
corner of the painting." Peter, a little braver ^than the 
rest, followed to the house of the high priest, where Judas 
was first taken. Luke tells the story of his denial simply 
but vividly. Sitting in the light of the fire that had been 
kindled in the court, one after another of the servants, see- 
ing Peter, charged him with being a follower of Jesus the 
Galilasan. Three times Peter uttered this denial. "And the 
Lord turned, and looked upon Peter. And Peter remem- 
bered the word of the Lord, how that he said unto him, 
Before the cock crow this day thou shalt deny me thrice. 
And he went out and wept bitterly" (Luke 22. 54-62). 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

The plot: Mark 14. 1, 2, 10, 11; read also Matt 27. 3-10. 

The anointing: Mark 14. 3-9. 

The Last Supper: Mark 14. 12-25; Luke 22. 15-20; compare 
1 Cor 11. 23-25. 

Warnings : Mark 14. 26-31 ; Luke 22. 35-38. 

At Gethsemane: Mark 14. 32-52. 

The denial : Mark 14. 66-72. 

Write down the instances found in these passages of Jesus' at- 
tempt to prepare his disciples for the end. 



CHAPTER XX 



THE TRIAL AND CRUCIFIXION 



The course 
of the trial 



The 

conviction 



The accounts of the trial of Jesus do not wholly agree. 
According to Mark and Matthew, Jesus was at once taken to 
the house of the high priest and thus brought before the San- 
hedrin while it was yet night. John may be right in stating 
that he was first taken to Annas, former high priest, father- 
in-law of Caiaphas and probably the real leader in the move- 
ment against Jesus. A night meeting would be irregular, 
but they were in great haste. The next day was the pass- 
over. The preparations for the feast began on this the pre- 
ceding day and so the latter part of this day was sacred. 
They must not trench upon the sacred day, and they must 
run no risk of trouble being made by the people in Jesus' 
favor. At any cost Jesus must be brought before the 
Roman governor for judgment immediately. So the lead- 
ers may have been gathered at once, and the formal judg- 
ment not passed till morning, as Luke 22. 66 suggests. 

Even now they were scrupulous about the formal rules 
of procedure. In their own minds the case was settled: 
Jesus had flouted sacred laws and customs. He had set their 
authority at naught in cleansing the temple. He had con- 
demned them as faithless in his parables. But they must 
find a charge upon which they could condemn him to death 
and they must have two witnesses agree. In this they 
failed. Then at last the high priest challenged Jesus with 
the question, "Art thou the Christ?" Jesus had been silent. 
Now he must respond if he was to be true to himself; and 
there was confidence and courage in his answer: "I am: 
and ye shall see the Son of man sitting at the right hand 
of Power, and coming with the clouds of heaven." With 
132 



THE TRIAL AND CRUCIFIXION 133 

such assurance Jesus faced the end. To them it was blas- 
phemy, and they forthwith passed their sentence. 

They next had to secure a sentence from Pilate. The The 
Sanhedrin had large powers of local government, but not before Pilate 
that of the sentence of death. Before Pilate Jesus' offense 
had to be given a political turn. Not blasphemy was the 
charge, but that as Messiah he conspired to be king. Pilate's 
position in Jerusalem was not an easy one. Rome had no- 
where a people more difficult to handle. It was apparent 
to him from the first that there was no real treason here. 
The poor peasant who stood before him must have seemed 
to him only a harmless fanatic. But these fierce leaders 
of the Jews, insistent and stirring up the people, were by no 
means harmless, and Jewish tumults were not to be courted. 
So Pilate wavers between the desire to release Jesus and 
the fear of consequences. 

The court seems to have been held before the palace. Pilate, 
Pilate's first judgment was, "I find no fault in this man." Herod, and 

J ° ' the people 

The priests then added another charge, that he was stirring 
up the people from Galilee to Judaea to revolt. Pilate 
grasped at the word Galilee. If this was a Galilsean the 
case belonged to Herod, who was at the time in the city. So 
at last Jesus met that crafty, cruel ruler whom he had called 
"that fox." Before Herod's shallow curiosity, however, 
Jesus kept silence, and Herod had no deeper interest. So 
back to Pilate Jesus went, and the governor sought again 
to release him. And now the people came into action. 
Their favor had been short-lived ; they had no room for 
a Messiah who could not defend himself. Pilate appealed 
to them, offering to release Jesus according to a certain 
custom ; but the people, stirred up by the priests, called for 
another prisoner and began to raise their cry against Jesus, 
"Crucify, crucify." Cowardly at heart, Pilate at last passed 
sentence of death. 

And now for the third time that morning Jesus suffers The mocking 
mockery and abuse. This meek and silent figure in peasant's of Jesus 



134 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

garb, yet claiming to be the Messiah, had stirred his foes to 
brutal ridicule. They had mocked him in the court of 
Caiaphas, striking the blindfolded captive and bidding him 
name the man who struck him. Herod's soldiers had put 
on gorgeous garments in mockery. Now Pilate hands him 
over to his men and, after the brutal custom of the time, 
Jesus suffers the cruelty of scourging. The soldiers in play 
give him crown and robe and a reed for scepter, and then 
change their mock homage to blows and insult. 
The way of All this did not last long, for Mark says the crucifixion 

took place at nine. The criminal himself was usually com- 
pelled to bear the heavy timber upon which he was later 
hung. Jesus was evidently too weak for this. The name 
of the man who bore the cross is probably remembered 
as being later a disciple. Broken though he may have been, 
Jesus still had a word for the few women who followed 
him lamenting, and for the city whose end he saw. 
The Crucifixion was a mode of death made terrible by pro- 

ThT^e" longed suffering, to which was added the shame of a 
words form of execution reserved for slaves and lowest criminals. 

In the presence of the deeper agony of spirit the mere de- 
scription of physical suffering is out of place. It was the 
common place of execution to which Jesus was led, and 
two robbers suffered the penalty at the same time. In few 
words the Gospels have given us the picture: the hardened 
soldiery gambling for his garments, his enemies jeering 
at him, the crowds looking on, and the women who had fol- 
lowed him from the north sorrowing at a distance. The 
four Gospels report seven words of Jesus spoken from the 
1 cross. In only one case, however, do two of the Gospels 
* report the same word. Two words are reported as spoken 
to others : one to the penitent thief, "Verily I say unto thee, 
To-day shalt thou be with me in paradise" ; and one given 
by John, spoken to his mother and a disciple: "Woman, 
behold, thy son," and "Behold, thy mother." Three words 
of prayer are reported : "Father, forgive them ; for they 



THE TRIAL AND CRUCIFIXION 135 

know not what they do"; "My God, my God, why hast 
thou forsaken me?" "Father, into thy hands I commend my 
spirit." The fourth Gospel adds two other words: "I 
thirst," and "It is finished." The wine and myrrh, offered 
to deaden the senses and to lessen the pain, Jesus refused. 
He wished to keep his full consciousness to the last. In- 
stead of the suffering which often lasted two or three days, 
Jesus' death came after but three hours, and then, appar- 
ently, suddenly. "Jesus cried again with a loud voice, and 
yielded up his spirit." 

His death showed again how he had been able to bind Friends 
men to him. From all the cruelty and brutality and indif- m 
ference of that hour, there stands forth the devotion of 
the women from Galilee who watched the scene from afar. 
And to them must be joined Joseph of Arimathaea, evidently 
a man of wealth and prominence, probably a member of 
the Sanhedrin. Joseph had the courage to ask for the 
body from Pilate, and provided the tomb in which it was 
buried. 

As he had lived, so Jesus died, in the spirit of love for The spirit 
men for whose saving he counted this death, and in utter °n death 
confidence and obedience toward God. One word seems to 
indicate that this confidence left him for at least a moment 
— the cry which Matthew and Mark report: "My God, 
my God, why hast thou forsaken me?" The inference is 
probably wrong. The story of the temptation shows how 
Jesus, in the days of struggle before his ministry, used the 
words of the Scriptures for guidance and strength. Here 
in his last trial, they come again to his lips. It is the 
twenty-second psalm that he is repeating. But the psalm, 
of which these evangelists repeat but the first verse, is a 
song of faith and not simply a cry of anguish: 

Our fathers trusted in thee: 

They trusted, and thou didst deliver them. 

They cried unto thee, and were delivered : 

They trusted in thee, and were not put to shame. 



136 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

The meaning What Jesus hoped for from his death was not wanting. 
It did for men what his life alone had not accomplished. 
The cross, symbol of shame for that day like the guillotine 
or gallows for ours, became the center of the message of his 
disciples and the symbol of honor for the ages following. 
From the first men saw in his death, as did he, not a tragic 
accident or the triumph of his foes, but some great purpose 
of God. It wrought the sense of sin and the feeling of peni- 
tence which he had wished to call forth. It stood forth as 
the crowning deed of his love in which they saw the love 
and mercy of God. It fixed forever the ideal of his life 
as that of love and service, and the ideal of the Christian 
life for those who were to follow him. 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

Before the priests: Mark 14. 53-65; Luke 22. 63-71. 

Before Pilate and Herod: Mark 15. 1-20; Luke 23. 1-25. 

Crucifixion and burial: Mark 15. 21-47; Matt 27. 32-66; Luke 
23. 26-56. 

Write briefly in your own words the story of the trial, incorpo- 
rating the items from the three synoptic Gospels. 



PART III 
THE JERUSALEM CHURCH 



137 



CHAPTER XXI 
THE BEGINNINGS OF THE CHURCH 

What Jesus' enemies were concerned about was not The plan of 
simply to wreak vengeance upon an individual who had of- Jesus ' foes 
fended them. They wanted to put a stop to a movement 
that threatened to endanger their position as leaders. The 
simplest way was to kill the Master. His disciples, a 
group of enthusiasts without training or standing, could 
very well be disregarded. None of them were, therefore, 
molested. When they had gibbeted the leader they felt the 
matter was disposed of. 

So, indeed, it seemed. Nothing is more certain than Disheartened 
the fact that the disciples were utterly perplexed and dis- KClpes 
heartened by the sudden events of the day. Face to face 
with the terrible reality, Jesus' warnings had little effect. 
A Messiah seized by his foes, humiliated, scourged, bound 
to a cross — how could such a thing be? They could not 
think of him as the Messiah now, but as "a prophet mighty 
in deed and word before God and all the people." They 
had "hoped that it was he who should redeem Israel," but 
their dream was over (Luke 24. 13-21). 

Just as certain, however, is the fact that almost at once The sudden 
a radical change took place. The scattered company gath- change 
ered together. The perplexity was gone. Instead there 
were men with a clear and confident conviction. The fear 
had vanished. In the city in which their Master was killed, 
before the people that had seen his shameful death, they 
were ready to speak their faith in him. And it was not 
simply an old faith regained; there was a courage and a 
joy that surpassed the old days. They were not mere fol- 
lowers now, they were leaders. And all this was not a 
passing enthusiasm. Under these men as leaders a great 
139 



140 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The 
resurrection 



Differences 
in the records 



movement began which in a couple of generations spread 
throughout the whole empire. What was the cause of this 
transformation? 

The first cause was the conviction that Jesus was living. 
That was the center and foundation of all else. From 
all the New Testament writings that touch this period we 
hear the same word : Jesus rose from the dead on the third 
day and appeared to his disciples. The earliest and most 
important record is that of Paul in his first letter to the 
Corinthians, written some twenty years after Jesus' death. 
Paul undoubtedly received this word directly from Peter, 
whom he visited at Jerusalem only a few years after Jesus' 
death (Gal I. 18). He declares to the Corinthians that 
what he preached to them was the common faith of the 
church as he himself had received it — "that Christ died 
for our sins according to the Scriptures ; and that he was 
buried ; and that he hath been raised the third day accord- 
ing to the Scriptures ; and that he appeared to Cephas ; then 
to the twelve; then he appeared to above five hundred 
brethren at once, of whom the greater part remain until 
now, but some are fallen asleep ; then he appeared to James ; 
then to all the apostles ; and last of all, as to the child un- 
timely born, he appeared to me also" (i Cor 15. 3-8). The 
other reports are found in the book of Acts and the four 
Gospels. 

When we come to a closer study of these records we are 
met by two questions : How are we to reconcile the apparent 
differences in these accounts ; and, How are we to conceive 
the manner of the resurrection and of these appearances? 
It may be stated at the very first that only by violence can 
these accounts be harmonized in their details. Matthew 
gives the appearances in Galilee, Luke in Jerusalem, while 
the last part of Mark's Gospel has been unfortunately lost 
to us, as the note given in our American Standard Revised 
Edition indicates. There have been differences of inter- 
pretation likewise as to the manner of the resurrection and 



BEGINNINGS OF THE CHURCH 141 

the appearances. Our oldest witness, Paul, lays no stress p 1 
upon the physical. He believes, of course, in a bodily 
resurrection, but he will not dogmatize about the nature 
of that body. He seems to put Jesus' resurrection in 
line with the resurrection of the saints, of which he says : 
"It is sown a natural body; it is raised a spiritual body" 
(1 Cor 15. 20-53). In the same way Paul classes Jesus' 
appearance to him on the way to Damascus with that to 
the disciples after his resurrection. Luke, on the other 
hand, emphasizes the physical, even to the extent of pic- 
turing Jesus as eating (Luke 24. 39-43). 

To the first question we may answer : While it is not pos- The central 
sible to reconcile these differences now, neither is it neces- question 
sary. In the years that elapsed between these events and 
the writing of the Gospels, it was inevitable that such dis- 
crepancies should arise. The fundamental fact, however, is 
clearly held by all these writers. The very discrepancies 
emphasize the central agreement. Nor is it important to be 
able to answer the second question. The actual issue is 
whether we believe in the reality of the spiritual world. 
If the physical is all there is of life, then these stories are 
mere hallucinations. But if the real life be the personal 
and spiritual, then the manner of these appearances is not 
vital, and to attempt to decide is simply to try to answer 
the unanswerable. The one clear fact, without which the 
wonderful story of early Christianity is a mere riddle, is the 
fact that these disciples were following a living Lord, and 
not a dead and defeated leader. 

What this conviction meant that Jesus was living we what the 
cannot overestimate. If he were living, then he was the fa,thmeant 
Messiah, then his death was part of the will and plan of 
God. Then too Jesus would come again and establish his 
Kingdom upon the earth. It is this confidence in the second 
appearing of Jesus and in his final triumph, that fills the 
whole early church with hope and joy. The Christians are 
those who wait for the appearing of their Lord. 



142 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The 

resurrection 
and the 
ground of 
faith 



The gift 
of the Spirit 



What is the relation of these narratives of the resur- 
rection to Christian faith to-day? Are they not its foun- 
dation? And if so, are not these discrepancies a serious 
hindrance ? To this we must answer : The conviction of the 
living Christ is central for Christian faith to-day. But the 
foundation of that conviction is not primarily the story of 
the appearances. It is, rather, the personality of Christ 
itself; it is this life that shines forth in the Gospels, con- 
vincing us of its reality and of the God whom it shows 
forth, and proving its reality by what it did for the early 
church and for the generations since, and by what it will 
do to-day for those who surrender to it. The real founda- 
tion is not a historical argument or proof; it is this personal 
moral conviction and experience. 

Next to their conviction of the living Christ, there is an- 
other great fact that stands at the beginning of the Chris- 
tian church and accounts for the transformation of these 
men. That was the gift of the Spirit. These disciples be- 
lieved that their Lord would some time return in glory, but 
their religion was not simply one of waiting. Their Master 
was the exalted Christ at the right hand of God and he 
had given to them the Holy Spirit. The Spirit of God 
was in their midst and in their hearts now. God was not 
a doctrine, he was a presence. Religion was not a mere 
duty, it was a life which they already possessed. There is 
a spirit of enthusiasm that fills these pages of Acts, a spirit 
of joy and a sense of power. "And day by day, continuing 
steadfastly with one accord in the temple, and breaking 
bread at home, they took their food with gladness and 
singleness of heart, praising God, and having favor with 
all the people. And they were all filled with the Holy 
Spirit, and they spake the word of God with boldness. And 
the multitudes of them that believed were of one heart and 
soul: and not one of them said that aught of the things 
which he possessed was his own ; but they had all things 
in common. And with great power gave the apostles their 



BEGINNINGS OF THE CHURCH 143 

witness of the resurrection of the Lord Jesus: and great 
grace was upon them all" (Acts 2. 43, 46, 47; 4. 31-33). 

This full measure of enthusiasm and power had not Pentecost 
been granted the disciples at once. Nor did they begin 
their public work immediately after the assurance that 
Jesus was risen. They were to wait together in Jerusalem 
in prayer until they were prepared for the great task. "Ye 
shall receive power, when the Holy Spirit is come upon 
you : and ye shall be my witnesses both in Jerusalem, and in 
all Judsea and Samaria, and unto the uttermost part of the 
earth" (Acts 1. 8). This was the word of the risen Christ 
to them. Luke describes how he was seen by the dis- 
ciples for the last time and then taken from them (Acts 1. 
6-1 1 ; Luke 24. 51). The idea of an ascension distinct from 
the resurrection appears only with Luke, not being men- 
tioned by Paul or in the other Gospels. Obedient to the 
word, the disciples gathered together daily in prayer in 
Jerusalem, one hundred and twenty of them in number. 
Pentecost was the name given by Greek-speaking Jews, or 
Hellenists, to the feast that came on the fiftieth day after 
the passover. The climax of their waiting came on that 
day. "And when the day of Pentecost was now come, they 
were all together in one place. And suddenly there came 
from heaven a sound as of the rushing of a mighty wind, 
and it filled all the house where they were sitting. And 
there appeared unto them tongues parting asunder, as of 
fire ; and it sat upon each one of them. And they were 
all filled with the Holy Spirit, and began to speak with 
other tongues, as the Spirit gave them utterance" (Acts 
2. 1-4). 

For Christian thought the word "Pentecost" means now The two 
not a Jewish but a Christian festival. The name commonly great facts 
used in English is Whitsunday. The day has been called the 
birthday of the Christian Church. That is going too far. 
That day might be fixed at the time when Peter and the 
others first confessed Jesus as the Christ. But Pentecost 



144 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



When was 
the Spirit 
given? 



The gift 
tongues 



was the beginning of Christianity as a militant and con- 
quering fellowship. The conviction that Jesus was living 
and the gift of the Spirit go together as the two great 
facts that explain the being and power of the early church. 
The first named gave the church its great'hope; the second 
added to the hope for the future an actual possession for 
the present. While they still looked forward, they were 
nevertheless conscious of a rule and presence of God in the 
world and in their life. Religion was a possession, not a 
mere hope. 

Two questions arise in connection with Luke's description. 
According to the accounts in Acts, the Spirit had not been 
given to the disciples before. This is not the uniform New 
Testament conception. The fourth Gospel declares that on 
the very first day of the resurrection Jesus breathed upon 
his disciples and said, "Receive ye the Holy Spirit" (John 
20. 2.2). More important is the word that Jesus spoke to 
Peter after his confession at Caesarea Philippi : "Flesh and 
blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but thy Father who is 
in heaven" (Matt 16. 17). It was God's Spirit who had 
shown this to Peter. All true life in men is due to the 
Spirit of God. In this case it was simply an unusual ex- 
perience under unusual conditions, marking the beginning 
of a new epoch. 

The gift of tongues of which Luke speaks is one that 
we find mentioned elsewhere, especially in Paul's letters. 
Luke conceives it as the ability to speak in foreign lan- 
guages. Visiting Jews in Jerusalem, coming from many 
countries, were attracted by what had happened here in Pen- 
tecost, and as they came together Luke declares they heard 
the disciples speaking the varied tongues which these vis- 
itors represented. Paul's description of the gift of tongues 
is quite different (1 Cor 14. 1-33). It was a rapt ecstatic 
utterance, coming from men under strong spiritual excite- 
ment. Of themselves these utterances did not convey any 
meaning, either to Christians or to others. Outsiders coming 



BEGINNINGS OF THE CHURCH 145 

in and listening would naturally think these people mad ; and 
while Paul believed it to be the work of the Spirit, he 
rated it below that earnest but ordered and intelligible speak- 
ing which he called prophesying. 

If there is any contradiction here, we must give Paul the Was it speech 
preference. He is a witness at first hand, writing of what iLg^g^? 
he himself has seen and known. Luke, in these first chapters, 
is using material that has been handed down to him. Even 
in Luke's narrative there are some things that suggest that 
what occurred is not different from what we find with Paul. 
If these visitors had heard the disciples speaking in foreign 
languages, they would not have charged them with drunken- 
ness (Acts 2. 13). Peter, replying to this charge, makes no 
reference to the foreign speech at all. No one can say that 
such a miracle could not have occurred. Within Christian 
writings, however, miracles must be judged by the principles 
of the Christian faith and according to their moral meaning 
and spiritual value. Such a gift of foreign speech would 
have had two possible meanings, one to convince these 
outsiders, the other to aid the disciples in later foreign 
missionary work. It failed to do the first and we find no 
reference anywhere to the latter. It was not the foreign 
speech, but the preaching from a heart filled with the 
Spirit like Peter's, that won the many that were added 
that day. 

Peter's speech shows that the early church saw in this The sp 1 " 1 
experience the fulfillment of the prophecies, found not only new ag e e 
with Joel 2. 28, 29 but elsewhere, which set forth the gift of 
the Spirit as the mark of the Messianic age. For many 
years Israel had felt herself without the living voice of a 
prophet. God was far away. Men had only his laws. In 
the new age it was to be different ; God was to speak again 
with men and dwell with them. It was not merely, then, 
that they had seen their risen Lord and that they rejoiced 
in the hope of his coming ; they had with them day by day 
this witness and inspiration of God's presence. 



i 4 6 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

As to the resurrection, read for general statements i Cor. 15. 3-8; 
Acts 1. i-ii. 

Appearances in Jerusalem: Matt 28. 1-10; Luke 24. 1-53. 

Appearances in Galilee: Matt 28. 16-20. 

The gift of the Holy Spirit: Acts I. 12-14; 2. 1-21. 

Compare 1 Cor 14. 1-33 as to the speaking with tongues ; note 
the points of likeness and difference between this and the picture in 
Acts 2. 






CHAPTER XXII 
THE FAITH AND THE MESSAGE 

The book of Acts is the principal source of our knowledge The book 
of this earliest period, a work written some fifty years after of Acts 
the death of Christ. As with most of the New Testament 
writings outside the Epistles, the book itself does not give 
the name of the author ; but early tradition assigns this and 
the third Gospel to Luke, a physician and for some time com- 
panion of Paul on his journeys. As in the Gospel, the 
author uses various sources at his command. Only a small 
part of the material comes from direct personal observation. 
This latter is included in what are called the "we sections," 
such as the journey to Rome, where the pronoun "we" is 
constantly used. These parts are vivid, full of detail, and 
of the greatest value. The earlier portions are of a more 
general character, and show a tendency to idealize which 
is very natural with one who looked back with reverence to 
those first days. 

The book shows a definite plan and much skill in composi- Plan and 
tion. Its purpose is to show how the gospel, rejected by all scope 
but a small number of the Jews, spread throughout the 
Roman world from Antioch to Rome. It is not a general 
history of the church, nor is it described correctly by the 
name that the church has given it, "The Acts of the 
Apostles." There were other apostles that worked besides 
Peter and Paul, but their work did not bear upon the plan of 
the author, and so he passes them by. No doubt he was 
governed in this also by the materials that he had at hand. 
Whatever the reason, it must be constantly remembered 
that this book gives us only scenes from the early church, 
not a full history. We know nothing of the beginnings in 
Galilee or in Rome, nothing of how the great church in 
i47 



348 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The disciples 
remain Jews 



What was 
new: Jesus 



Africa arose. We can see that such a man as Barnabas 
had a long life of active service, but we know only a frag- 
ment of his work, and then merely because he touches 
Paul. Even of Paul himself, there is less than a decade of 
his life for which we have anything like a full record. 

The conviction that their Master was living was what 
brought together the scattered disciples. But the little com- 
pany that gathered thus did not think of themselves as 
forming a new church or beginning a new religion. In 
their own mind they were still good and loyal Jews. They 
did not give up any of their old faith or separate themselves 
from their own people. They went to the temple at the 
hour of prayer. They spoke in the temple about Jesus to 
those who would listen. They kept the laws of the old 
religion as they had always done. Peter was shocked at 
the suggestion that he should eat meat that was not cere- 
monially clean. They were astonished when the report was 
brought back that uncircumcised Gentiles (that is, Gentiles 
who were not even proselytes to the Jewish faith) had 
believed and received the Holy Spirit. It is clear that these 
first disciples had not yet grasped the full meaning of what 
had come to them. 

What, then, was new in their faith and their message? 
We may answer in a word: Jesus the Christ. "J esus of 
Nazareth, a man approved of God unto you by mighty works 
and wonders, him, being delivered up by the determinate 
counsel and foreknowledge of God, ye did crucify and slay. 
The things which God foreshadowed by the mouth of all the 
prophets, he thus fulfilled. This Jesus did God raise up. 
God hath made him both Lord and Christ. Being by the 
right hand of God exalted, and having received of the 
Father the promise of the Holy Spirit, he hath poured 
forth this, which ye see and hear. Repent that your sins 
may be blotted out ; that he may send the Christ, who hath 
been appointed for you, even Jesus ; whom the heaven must 
receive until the times of the restoration of all things." 



THE FAITH AND THE MESSAGE 149 

These words are taken from the reports of Peter's speeches The faith and 
(Acts 2. 14-40; 3. 12-26). They give us in substance the 
faith of this early church — the message which they preached, 
and the answer to the taunts of their foes who mocked at 
the idea of a Messiah that had been crucified. We may 
state this faith as follows : ( 1 ) Jesus lives ; God has raised 
him from the grave. (2) The resurrection is the evidence 
that Jesus is the Messiah; God has made him Christ and 
Saviour by raising him from the dead. (3) His sufferings 
and death were no accident or defeat, but according to the 
purpose of God and the word of the Scriptures ; his death 
was for the sins of men. (4) This Jesus is coming again 
as the Messiah, when he shall judge men and shall set up 
his kingdom; repent, therefore, and make ready. (5) Those 
who repent and believe shall receive forgiveness of 
their sins and the gift of the Holy Spirit; this gift, be- 
stowed by Jesus, is the second evidence that he is the 
Messiah. 

All these conceptions center in Jesus. Jesus lives; Jesus cfarurtthe 
is the Messiah ; Jesus died for men ; Jesus is coming again ; 
Jesus gives the Spirit. Jesus is the creed of the early church. 
His personality and his mastery of these disciples explain 
all else. The resurrection is important, but only as the 
resurrection of this Jesus whom they had known. He fills 
the whole horizon of their thought and faith. He deter- 
mines their thought of God : God is one whose spirit is like 
that of Jesus ; he is "the God and Father of our Lord Jesus 
Christ." He determines their hope of the future, the hope 
that filled the early church with confidence and joy; Jesus 
was to come and bring the new heaven and the new earth. 
He determines their thought of religion. It is true they 
still go to the temple and keep the old laws. But that was 
the outer form of their life. His spirit and his teachings 
rule them; and we see this in the life of the new com- 
munity : its reverence and joy, its spirit of brotherhood and 
£ood will. 



first creed 



ISO NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

what the There are other writings besides Acts which throw light 

ospe s s ow U p 0n t j ie thought and faith of the first community ; these 
are the first three Gospels. Our present Gospels were not 
written during this time, but the beginnings reach back to 
these first years. They show us how deeply the disciples 
appreciated the living memory of Jesus of Nazareth. They 
did not simply think of a risen Christ or dream of his return. 
They cherished his word. They recalled the stories of his 
deeds of mercy and love. They kept alive his spirit. 

The oral At the beginning there were no written Gospels. Every- 

thing was passed on by word of mouth. The Oriental has 
always had a marvelous memory for words. We do not 
have it because we do not need it in this day of books. There 
were present in the first community not only the twelve but 
others who had been witnesses "concerning all that Jesus 
began both to do and to teach." The living testimony of 
these men would naturally be prized above any writings. 
For the future there was no concern, since they thought 
the return of the Lord so near at hand. 

The interest The first interest of these disciples would be in telling 
the story of Jesus' life and deeds. Their preaching to others 
would naturally begin with this, just as Peter does at the 
house of Cornelius: "Jesus of Nazareth, how God anointed 
him with the Holy Spirit and with power: who went about 
doing good, and healing all that were oppressed of the devil ; 
for God was with him" (Acts 10. 38). We can see here 
what points were emphasized: the anointing with the Spirit 
at his baptism, his deeds of healing, especially with the 
demoniacs, and whatever else showed his power and so 
indicated that he was the Messiah. The story would natur- 
ally end with his death, which was for the salvation of men, 
and his resurrection, which proved him to be the Messiah 
of God. The words of Jesus would be just as carefully 
preserved as the story of his deeds. But while the story of 
his life was used in the preaching and winning cf converts, 
the words of Jesus were used especially in the teaching of 



of the 
disciples 



THE FAITH AND THE MESSAGE 151 

the disciples who had been won. Such a word would 
always be decisive so far as faith and duty were concerned. 

These stories of Jesus' deeds and collections of his words The sources 
are what appear a generation later in our Gospels. They 
show us more than anything else how the personality of 
Jesus stamped itself upon these disciples. The narrative 
is so simple that it is easy to miss its unique value and mean- 
ing. The Gospels nowhere try to describe or analyze or 
define. They are simply witnesses. They let Jesus speak 
to us and walk before us. And so they bring us what no 
description and no definition of any creed could bring: the 
living Christ himself. It makes little difference just how 
long it was before these oral traditions were set down in 
writing, or how they were combined in our present Gospels ; 
these words and this picture carry in themselves the con- 
viction of their reality. 

We must read these Gospeis to understand what the early The witness 
church was thinking of, and not merely Paul's letters and fiJ^™ 117 
the book of Acts. They were telling men not simply of the 
resurrection, but how Jesus had mercy upon the demoniacs, 
how he fed the hungry and blessed little children, and how 
he said to men, "Your sins are forgiven." These disciples 
may have kept the old law, but we must remember that it 
was they who gathered the sayings like those of the Sermon 
on the Mount and handed them down. They told one 
another the story of the good Samaritan, of the righteous- 
ness that was more than that of the Pharisees, of the poor 
in spirit and the meek and merciful who were to inherit the 
earth, and of the love that was to be like God's love and 
go out to the evil and the good. No one of the stories of 
Acts tells us so much of the real spirit of the first disciples 
as this. 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

Read Peter's speeches, Acts 2. 14-40; 3. 11-26; and the prayer 
of the disciples, Acts 4. 2,3-31. 



1 52 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

Make a list of the names or descriptive titles used in referring 
to Jesus in these passages. 

Read Psa 22 and 69, and Isa 52. 13 to 53. 12. 

From these passages select such verses as might have seemed 
to the early church to describe and foretell the sufferings and death 
of Jesus, or give any reason for the same. 



CHAPTER XXIII 
THE LIFE OF THE FIRST COMMUNITY 

What impresses us most in the life of the first com- Fellowship 
munity is its spirit of fellowship. It is the picture of a 
family that meets us here. "The multitude of them that 
believed were of one heart and soul. And they continued 
steadfastly in the apostles' teaching and fellowship, in the 
breaking of bread and the prayers." They called each 
other brother and sister. They greeted one another with a 
kiss. In larger or smaller groups they took frequent, if 
not daily, meals together. It was a fellowship of life as well 
as faith and worship. They cared for the poor. "Not one 
of them said that aught of the things which he possessed 
was his own. Neither was there among them any that 
lacked." 

Some of the phrases which Luke uses in this narrative Not 
have led certain students to believe that this was a case of 
strict community of goods, or communism. He says: "All 
that believed were together, and had all things in common ; 
and they sold their possessions and goods, and parted them 
to all, according as any man had need" (Acts 2. 44, 45). 
A little scrutiny will show that Luke is generalizing here 
from particular instances, and that there was no fixed rule. 
John Mark's mother, evidently a prominent member of the 
community, retained her home (Acts 12. 12). Peter defi- 
nitely tells Ananias that he was under no necessity of selling 
his property. What we have here is not a formal order, 
but a great spiritual impulse, a movement of spontaneous 
love and devotion which impelled men to share what they 
had with all that were in need. Probably the feeling that 
the coming of the Lord was near at hand had its influence 
also. One man is noted especially, because he sold a piece 
153 



154 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The care for 
the poor 



Gatherings 
for worship 



The worship 
free 



of ground and gave over the proceeds. It was this that 
was the undoing of two other disciples. They saw the 
esteem and honor that came to Barnabas through his 
generous deed and coveted it for themselves. So they sold 
their property too. They could not, however, bear to give 
over all the proceeds. They wanted to have the applause 
for generosity and yet keep some of the money. Their 
sudden and tragic end made a deep impression. 

Whatever there was of communism here disappeared very 
soon, and we do not hear of it elsewhere. But the churches 
elsewhere followed this first example in the care of the poor. 
Everywhere this same spirit of love appeared. Back of the 
need of the individual believer there stood always the re- 
sources of the whole community. At Jerusalem there seemed 
to be special occasion for such help. Part of it may have 
been due to the fact that the disciples that came from 
Galilee would have lost their regular means of support. At 
any rate, it is one of Paul's special tasks later on to send 
gifts to the mother church. 

Of formal services of worship we read nothing. The 
disciples participated in the worship of the temple. Their 
own gatherings were in their homes. We read that they 
"continued steadfastly in the apostles' teaching and fellow- 
ship, in the breaking of bread and the prayers." This sug- 
gests the nature of their gatherings. The teaching would 
concern the words and deeds of Jesus, including the vision 
of the risen Lord, and the exposition of Old Testament 
passages which foretold all this. Then, as they were moved 
by the Spirit, there would be prayer and exhortation. 

All the worship of the early church must be thought of 
as wholly free and spontaneous. These disciples were Jews, 
and so accustomed to the worship of the synagogue. That 
worship was informal and democratic, giving opportunity 
for any one to speak who had a message, and laying special 
stress upon the reading of Scriptures and teaching. Besides 
this, there was in the early church the belief in the gift of 



LIFE OF THE FIRST COMMUNITY 155 

the Spirit as belonging to all disciples. It was not office or 
education that determined whether one should speak or pray, 
but the impulse of the Spirit. 

The words "breaking of bread" have a religious meaning The Lord's 
here, as is indicated by their connection with prayers. The upper 
reference is to the Lord's Supper, as in Acts 20. 7. 11. How 
the Lord's Supper was celebrated we do not know. It seems 
that here, as later at Corinth (1 Cor 11. 20-22), the Lord's 
Supper was a part of a common meal which was taken 
together. Apparently, the disciples met together for such 
meals quite frequently. The exact form of ceremony we 
cannot tell. If we follow the suggestion of Paul's words 
written but a score of years later (1 Cor 11. 23-25), the 
leader at some place in the meal took a loaf of bread and 
broke it, repeating the words : "The Lord Jesus in the night 
in which he was betrayed took bread ; and when he had 
given thanks, he brake it, and said, This is my body, which 
is for you: this do in remembrance of me." The broken 
bread was then distributed to be eaten by those present. 
Then the leader would take a cup of wine and add : "In like 
manner also the cup, after supper, saying, This cup is the 
new covenant in my blood: this do, as often as ye drink it, 
in remembrance of me." Perhaps at first they used the 
simpler words of the earliest gospel : with the bread, "Take 
ye : this is my body" ; and with the wine, "This is my blood 
of the covenant, which is poured out for many." 

Besides this simple service, one other form was in use Baptism 
from the beginning, that of baptism. It marked the recep- 
tion of new members into the fellowship. The simple form 
used at first was into the name, or upon the name, of Jesus. 
It was not till later that the church used the form in Matt 
28. 19, "In the name of the Father and of the Son and of 
the Holy Spirit." The baptism into the name of Jesus 
meant that the believer confessed himself as belonging to 
the risen Lord. 

How was the early church organized? Was it cpisco- organization 



156 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The twelve 



The seven 
and the 
brothers 
of Jesus 



palian or congregational? Such questions do not apply at 
this period. There was no formal organization at all. There 
was a company of disciples, and they had their leaders, as any 
such company will have. The leaders in this case were 
very naturally the twelve. The later church has usually 
called them simply the apostles, but there were other apostles 
besides them. Strictly speaking, the apostles were the men 
who gave their time wholly to missionary work; as such 
they were the founders of Christian communities. Paul is 
one of them, though he was not one of the twelve. In I Cor 
l 5- 5- 7> ne mentions first the twelve and then the apostles 
as though these two did not mean the same. Barnabas too 
is an apostle (Acts 14. 14). The twelve were, of course, 
of the number of the apostles, for Jesus had chosen them 
not only to be with him but to carry his message. 

This seems to have been the distinct function of the 
twelve at Jerusalem. They were witnesses, teachers. When 
one was to be selected in Judas's place, the requirement is 
put forward that he is to be one of those who had been 
associated with Jesus and so could be a witness (Acts 1. 21, 
22). But the apostles did not choose him. It was the 
church that came together and decided as to the choice by 
means of lot. The twelve, of course, exercised other leader- 
ship besides that of teaching. They had supervision at 
first of the poor relief, but it was the church, and not the 
twelve, that selected the men to take their place in this. 
They were to give themselves to prayer and teaching (Acts 
6. 4). From their association with Jesus and selection by 
him, the twelve would naturally be the leaders and spokes- 
men of the community in general matters. 

Besides the twelve there were "the seven," who were chosen 
to look after the daily meals for the poor. Perhaps this 
daily ministration, for which the phrase "serve tables" is 
also used, may have had to do with the arranging of the 
daily common meals for the whole company. The seven are 
not called deacons, and were perhaps only a provisional 



LIFE OF THE FIRST COMMUNITY 157 

committee. One other name becomes more and more promi- 
nent as time passes — James, the brother of Jesus. The 
brothers of Jesus had not believed on him from the first. 
Indeed, they even considered him beside himself. Paul 
tells us that Jesus appeared to his brother James after the 
resurrection, and the brothers of Jesus are found in the 
early church almost from the beginning. Their relation to 
Jesus would naturally win for them special regard. With 
James, however, there must have been in addition a strong 
gift of leadership. Later church writers speak of him as 
the first bishop of Jerusalem, but we read nothing of any 
bishop at Jerusalem or of the election of James to this or 
any other office. 

It has been a common conception that these first disciples A brother- 
after the resurrection met together and organized the Chris- organisation 
tian Church. By some it has been held that supreme 
authority was given to Peter or to the twelve, or that during 
the days before his ascension Jesus gave to his disciples a 
divine plan of organization. What has just been noted shows 
nothing of this kind. Strictly speaking, there was no separate 
church at first, only a community of disciples, who felt 
themselves one, but still counted themselves a part of the 
Jewish people. The twelve were not church officials, and 
neither Peter alone nor they all together exercised any su- 
preme authority. They were teachers and witnesses because 
they had been with Jesus. When a step of importance had 
to be taken, the body of disciples took it, as in filling Judas's 
place or appointing the seven. There was no plan of bishops 
and elders and deacons which they knew of as a law for 
the church. What Paul says later describes the even simpler 
life of these first days: "Ye are the body of Christ, and 
severally members thereof. And God hath set some in the 
church, first apostles, second prophets, thirdly teachers, then 
miracles, then gifts of healings, helps, governments, divers 
kinds of tongues" (1 Cor 12. 28). This is not a list of 
offices to be found in every church. These disciples formed 



158 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

a brotherhood, one body of Christ with one Spirit in them 
all, and in the life of that brotherhood they all took part 
each as he was led by this Spirit. The careful organization 
of the church was to come later. 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 
Read Acts 1. 15-26; 2. 41-47; 4. 23 to 5. 11; 6. 1-6. 



CHAPTER XXIV 
FROM JEWISH SECT TO CHRISTIAN CHURCH 

The most interesting question in New Testament history Jewish sect 
is, How did the Jewish sect become the Christian Church? atfirst 
Here at the beginning stands the little Christian community 
at Jerusalem. Its members are loyal Jews. They have a 
hope and a life which other Jews have not; but still they 
think of themselves as Jews, and they keep the rules of the 
religion of their people. They would have welcomed Gen- 
tiles that might have come to them, just as the Jews wel- 
comed such converts. But they would have expected such 
converts to keep the Jewish laws of religion as they did; 
in other words, first to become Jews. In a brief generation 
the change takes place. The community at Jerusalem 
gives place to the church of the empire. Christianity is, 
being preached, not as a Jewish hope, but as good news for 
all men. Nothing is said about being a Jew or keeping 
Jewish rules, but only about faith in Christ, and about 
living a new life of love in the Spirit of God. It is Chris- 
tianity as a universal and spiritual religion. 

This is the greatest crisis in the life of Christianity. The The * orces 
change did not take place without a struggle. Two great change 
forces were at work to bring it about. The first was the 
pressure of outward events, the persecutions of the Jews, 
which showed the disciples that the new was really dif- 
ferent from the old. The second was the inner force of the 
spirit of the new religion itself. This was the main cause 
in the change. It was this spirit, working through men 
like Stephen and Barnabas and Paul, that made the new 
faith a world faith. 

The first years of the Christian community at Jerusalem a time 
were, on the whole, a period of peace. Luke reports only o£peace 
159 



i6o 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The reason 
for peace 



two cases of persecution. The first instance occurred in 
connection with the healing of a lame man at the temple 
by Peter and John. Attracted by the event, the people 
gathered together and were addressed by the apostles, who 
called them in the name of Jesus to repent and look for- 
ward to the coming of Jesus as Messiah to restore all things. 
Upon this the temple guards arrested them for making a 
disturbance and the next day they were brought before the 
Sanhedrin. It is not the Pharisees, the old foes of Jesus, 
that are proceeding against the disciples here, but the 
Sadducees. Worldly and at heart religiously indifferent, the 
Sadducees probably cared very little about the disciples 
preaching the resurrection. They did fear the results that 
might come from the development of such a movement, to 
which they thought they had put an end with the death 
of Jesus (Acts 3. 1-26). 

Despite the warning given the apostles, the movement 
continued to grow. A second time the Sadducees, or temple 
party, laid hold upon the leaders and put them in jail. 
At this juncture, Luke tells us, it was the counsel of Ga- 
maliel that saved them: "Refrain from these men, and let 
them alone : for if this counsel or this work be of men, it 
will be overthrown : but if it is of God, ye will not be 
able to overthrow them ; lest haply ye be found even to be 
fighting against God." Gamaliel was a rabbi of highest 
standing, and his advice was followed (Acts 5. 12-42). 

These cases, after all, were but incidents. The Christian 
community had relative peace and so a good opportunity 
for that rapid growth of which Luke speaks. The Sad- 
ducees came to look upon them as harmless enthusiasts, or 
else were deterred from action against them by their grow- 
ing favor with the people. The Pharisees, who had been 
so bitter against Jesus, showed no hostility. The reason 
for this is not far to seek. These disciples offered no criti- 
cisms, but kept the law as good Jews, went to the temple, 
and observed hours of prayer and rules of purity. 



FROM JEWISH TO CHRISTIAN 161 



The 
Hellenists 



But a change was taking place within the church itself. 
Among the many new members that came to it were in- 
cluded Greek-speaking Jews, or Hellenists. We hear of 
them in connection with the appointment of the seven. 
They were newer members of the community and their 
widows were being neglected in the distribution of relief. 
A majority of the seven then appointed were probably 
Hellenists, and Stephen is usually reckoned with them. 
These Hellenists were Jews who had lived abroad but had re- 
turned to Jerusalem. This return indicated their devotion 
to their country and its faith. At the same time their life 
in other lands and their use of the Greek tongue would 
tend to make them more open-minded. Among these men 
we can reckon probably Philip, who carried the gospel to 
Samaria ; Barnabas, whose name is put before that of Paul 
in the account of the first mission across the sea; and 
Stephen, the first martyr. 

It was Stephen who brought on the crisis. What he Stephen's 
taught we cannot definitely know. We have only the ac- 
cusations of his enemies and Luke's report of his speech, 
which at best is fragmentary, being broken off at the point 
where he was beginning to set forth his own position. 
Stephen did not anticipate Paul's teaching. He did not 
oppose the law by saying that men were saved by grace 
alone through faith, and not by keeping the law. He spoke 
of the law as "living oracles." But he aroused their enmity 
at two points. ( i ) The temple, he declared, was only tem- 
porary and not really necessary. God did not dwell in 
houses made with hands. Probably Stephen went back 
here to the word of Jesus about the destruction of the 
temple. Now, as then, it aroused their fury. The temple 
and its inviolability were at the heart of their faith. Jere- 
miah had made such an attack once and suffered for it 
(Jer 7. 1-15 ; 26. 8, 9). At this point perhaps his opponents 
interrupted him with fierce accusations: He was speaking 
against the holy place and against the law. Stephen may 



teaching 



162 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

well have had Jeremiah in mind when he answered, and 
still further stirred their hostility. (2) "You charge me 
with opposing the law. It is you that oppose it. You are 
like your fathers, always resisting God when he spoke 
through the prophets, receiving the law but never keeping 
it" (Acts 6. 8 to 7. 53). 
The charges This last charge also reminds us of Jesus' teaching in 
his attack upon the Pharisees and in the higher righteous- 
ness which he demanded. Both these points are reflected 
in the charges which they preferred when they brought 
him before the council : "This man ceaseth not to speak 
words against this holy place, and the law: for we have 
heard him say, that this Jesus of Nazareth shall destroy 
this place, and shall change the customs which Moses de- 
livered unto us" (Acts 6. 13, 14). 

The attack upon the temple had stirred the Sadducees; 
what he had said about the law aroused the Pharisees. The 
trial had been before a formal session of the council. Now, 
apparently, the session broke up in confusion. To their 
minds he had himself confirmed the charge of blasphemy 
made against him. Whether with Roman consent or not, 
we do not know, but they hurried him forth and inflicted 
the penalty provided by their law, death by stoning. Luke 
shows us the spirit of this first disciple who sealed his wit- 
ness with his death : "And they stoned Stephen, calling upon 
the Lord, and saying, Lord Jesus, receive my spirit. And 
he kneeled down, and cried with a loud voice, Lord, lay 
not this sin to their charge" (Acts 7. 54-60). 
What Stephen wrought more by his death than by his teach- 

wroS m S m nfe - He brought to a close the day when Chris- 

tianity could live on undisturbed as a harmless Jewish sect. 
In their formal charges the witnesses may have been false, 
as Luke suggests. In the main point they were right: this 
new movement meant an end to the temple and to the cus- 
toms of Moses. What was more important, Stephen helped 
not merely their enemies but the church herself to see the 



FROM JEWISH TO CHRISTIAN 163 

meaning of the faith. In the first place came the fact of 
persecution. It did not matter that most of the disciples 
had not shared in the insight of Stephen or held his views. 
They found themselves driven forth on account of the 
temple and the law, though they reverenced both. They 
had to face the question: What is our real faith, Jesus the 
Messiah and the hope of his coming, or Moses and the 
temple and the laws ? And they saw how clearly Christ and 
the hope of the Kingdom and the new fellowship stood first, 
and how much they meant. In the second place, Stephen 
initiated the first missionary period. True, there was no 
such clear purpose in their minds as when Paul set forth. 
But an ardent living faith drives to utterance. "They 
therefore that were scattered abroad went about preaching 
the word" (Acts 8. 1-4). 

The period of persecution and expansion thus went hand Persecution 
in hand. The driving force back of the persecution was expansion 
the Pharisees, and the leader in the movement was a young 
man named Saul, who had been present at the stoning of 
Stephen. The apostles apparently remained in Jerusalem 
in hiding. Many of the disciples scattered throughout 
Judaea and Galilee and Samaria, some probably going far- 
ther. There must have been little groups of disciples be- 
yond these limits even before this time; we read of dis- 
ciples at Joppa, Lydda, Caesarea, Damascus, and Antioch. 
The real work of expansion did not come through formally 
appointed missionaries or through the apostles. For the 
most part, it was done by common men and women, speak- 
ing as they had opportunity to those whom they met in their 
ordinary work of life. It was a great lay movement, and 
such, indeed, Christianity remained for the first century. 

A few figures, however, stand forth. The first is Philip, PWUp 
not one of the twelve but one of the seven, for the twelve 
were in Jerusalem. His first mission was to Samaria, his 
next southward as far as Gaza (Acts 8. 5-40). Only two 
incidents are given from these journeys. Near Gaza Philip 



164 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

met an Ethiopian, a man of high official position at home, 
and a proselyte, who was just returning from Jerusalem. 
The reference to Isaiah shows us how the early Christians 
were already interpreting the Old Testament in relation to 
Christ. The story of Simon Magus gives us a side-light 
upon conditions at that time. It was a day of many religions 
and much superstition throughout the empire. There were 
all manner of priests and prophets and charlatans, and peo- 
ple were ready to believe almost any magic or mystery. 
Simon was but one of many who fed on this spirit, which 
was for him a source of livelihood. In Philip he recognized 
a superior power, and even more so in Peter and John when 
these came down from Jerusalem. To be able to give the 
Holy Spirit by the laying on of hands seemed to him just 
another profitable device, and he was willing to pay well for 
the secret. All this was not so much a sign of great wick- 
edness as a picture of what religion meant to many in that 
day — not faith and righteousness, but magical rites and 
mysteries of all kinds. Similar cases are met later in 
Paul's work : Elymas, the sorcerer, and the soothsaying girl 
(Acts 13. 6; 16. 16). 
Barnabas ^ The question of Peter's relation to this expansion must 

be considered later on. Luke shows us clearly that this 
new movement in the church was a lay movement. The 
spread of the gospel was not through appointed ministers 
and missionaries, but simply through those "that were scat- 
tered abroad." These went as far as Phoenicia and the 
coast near by, the great city of Antioch to the north, and 
the island of Cyprus. Of all this work we have but one 
definite item. At Antioch these disciples preached not only 
to Jews but to Gentiles also. Their success here was so 
great, and their preaching to the Gentiles such an inno- 
vation, that the church at Jerusalem had to take notice 
of it. Fortunately, it was Barnabas whom they sent down, 
himself a Hellenist from the island of Cyprus that lay off 
this coast. "He was a good man, and full of the Holy 



and Antioch 



FROM JEWISH TO CHRISTIAN 165 

Spirit and of faith." Even greater success followed his 
coming until the burden and the opportunity drove him to 
look for aid. And so he took a step which helps to usher 
in another period. "He went forth to Tarsus to seek for Saul ; 
and when he had found him, he brought him unto Antioch. 
And it came to pass, that even for a whole year they were 
together with the church, and taught much people; and 
that the disciples were called Christians first in Antioch" 
(Acts 11. 19-26). 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

As to Peter and John, read Acts 3. 1-26; 5. 12-42. 

As to Stephen: Acts 6. 8 to 7. 60. Compare Jer 7. 1-15; 26. 8, 9. 

As to Philip: Acts 8. 1-40. 

As to Antioch, read Acts 11. 19-26. 

Locate the following places upon the map and note the enlarg- 
ing circle: Samaria (city), Gaza, Lydda, Joppa, Csesarea, Damas- 
cus, Antioch, Cyprus. 

The Ethiopian was reading the Scriptures in the Greek, that is, 
the Septuagint version. Compare Acts 8. 32, 33 with Isa 53. 7, 8, 
and note the difference in the versions. 



PART IV 

PAUL AND THE CHURCH OF 
THE EMPIRE 



167 




J Q 
o 



CHAPTER XXV 
THE MAN AND HIS TASK 



In the story of the beginnings of Christianity there is Paul's place 

inN. T. 
history 



one man who claims a larger space than all others of that a 



first century put together. Some have looked upon him as 
the one true interpreter of Jesus, others as the man who 
turned the new faith aside from the simple teaching of 
Jesus, yet no one has disputed his importance. In any his- 
tory of New Testament times his thought and work fill the 
main place after the study of Jesus. What makes this more 
remarkable is certain facts about this man. He was not 
one of the twelve. He had no such standing as belonged to 
one who had associated with Jesus. He had been, indeed, 
a persecutor of the new way. He began his work on his own 
account. The mother church at Jerusalem gave him no 
credentials. There were times, in fact, when the recognized 
leaders of the church, Peter and James, were opposed to him. 

There are two reasons why this special attention is given Our 
to Paul. In the first place, we are in better position to of p ^ ge 
know him than any other figure of the New Testament. 
The picture of Jesus, it is true, stands out clear and definite. 
And yet our oldest Gospels were written a full generation 
after his death, they give us his words in Greek, while he 
spoke Aramaic, and of his life they report but a few months 
or years. Of his followers almost all, even of the leaders 
like the twelve, are but names to us. Paul is the exception. 
It is true that most of our knowledge of his life is limited 
to a period of seven years. And yet there is probably no man 
of antiquity who is better known to us. It is not simply that 
so large a part of the book of Acts is given to him, nor yet 
the fact that we possess writings from his own hand. It is 
the character of these writings. This man was not writing 
169 



170 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

for a public press, nor for unknown readers, nor for pos- 
terity. He was not producing "literature," or thinking of 
style or of the impression he would make. We see a soul 
of deep passion, of strong conviction, and transparent sin- 
cerity pouring forth its thought and feeling. And this 
man's thought is never mere thought, no theoretic theology ; 
it is his faith and his experience. Not the Confessions of 
Augustine, nor the letters of Luther, nor the Journal Intime 
of Amiel reflect so truly or transparently the man. 

His The second reason for the space given to Paul is the im- 

portance of the man. It was this man, not one of the 
twelve, who saw the meaning of Christianity as a univer- 
sal religion and freed it from Judaism, who saw it as a spir- 
itual faith and freed it from Jewish rule and law. It was 
he who carried it out into the great Roman world and es- 
tablished it province by province about the Mediterranean. 
When in his last years he was looking toward Rome and 
Spain, he could speak of those things "which Christ wrought 
through me, for the obedience of the Gentiles, by word and 
deed, in the power of signs and wonders, in the power of 
the Holy Spirit ; so that from Jerusalem, and round about 
even unto Illyricum, I have fully preached the gospel of 
Christ" (Rom 15. 18, 19). 

The jew Our first question about such a man is, Where did he 

come from, and what was his preparation for such a work? 
Scattered here and there we find not a few references that 
help us answer these queries. Three times Paul speaks of 
his race (Rom 11. 1 ; 2 Cor 11. 22; Phil 3. 5). To say that 
Paul was a Jew means as little for that time as it does now. 
There were Jews then, as now, loyal to every tradition of 
their faith. There were Jews, especially in the dispersion, 
who were of a more liberal cast, as well as some who had 
turned from the faith of their fathers. Though Paul's home 
was in the dispersion, in Tarsus of Cilicia, he belonged in the 
first class. "A Hebrew of the Hebrews" he calls himself. 
In such a home the native Aramaic tongue was spoken, 



THE MAN AND HIS TASK 171 

which was not the rule with the Jews dwelling abroad. The 
Pharisaic standard prevailed, the strictest observance of the 
law. As to his own life, he could appeal to those who knew 
him at Tarsus and at Jerusalem (Acts 26. 4, 5). He had 
completed his education at Jerusalem under the noted 
teacher Gamaliel, perhaps at the home of an elder sister 
(Acts 22. 3; 23. 16). 

Paul was a Hellenist, a Greek Jew. However strict the 
home might have been, the fact remains that he spoke 
Greek as well as Hebrew, that his early life was passed in 
a great city, and that he had a knowledge of the world 
of his day and its thought that none of the twelve could 
have had. A language is never a lifeless vehicle; it al- 
ways involves a certain direct contact with another life and 
knowledge of it. The Greek tongue was the channel 
through which there poured the rich life of that old world. 
True Paul was not a student of Greek rhetoric or literature. 
He did not attend the great university at Tarsus, which could 
be mentioned with the schools at Athens and Alexandria. 
But this language that he knew was still open door and 
open window for the thought of the wide Roman world. 
When Paul went out to preach the gospel it was more than 
a mere language that he possessed. 

Paul was a Roman. Like many Jews he had two names. 
It is interesting to note that it is not by his Hebrew name 
Saul, but his Roman name Paul, that he is best known. Far 
more important than the name is the fact that Paul was a 
Roman citizen, and was one by birth. How the family had 
obtained this privilege we do not know. It suggests a fam- 
ily not only of standing but of some means. Roman citi- 
zenship was by no means so common yet in the empire. 
For Paul it meant more than a welcome protection in his 
work. It had its effect upon his spirit and character. He 
is not simply a Hebrew of Hebrews ; he is a man of Tarsus, 
"a citizen of no mean city." It gives him an imperial out- 
look. The world of the twelve is Palestine; Paul's world 



ment for 
the task 



172 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

is the empire, and it is the empire that he plans to take 
for Christ. 
The equip- All this means an unusual equipment for a great task. 

The soil from which Christianity sprang was Judaism. No 
Greek or Roman could have been its interpreter. For that 
a Jew was needed, and Paul was more of a Jew than were 
the twelve. But it needed not only a Jew, but a Jew who 
had found out where Judaism failed. Here again Paul's 
experience fitted him. His very strictness as a Pharisee 
made him see the failure of the law, and saved him from 
such half-way positions as James and Peter could take. 
At the same time Paul's life as Hellenist and as Roman 
fitted him for the task that was waiting: to take this re- 
ligion freed from Judaism, to interpret it to the world of 
Greek thought, and to plant it in communities throughout 
the great world of Roman life. The fruits of his toil show 
his fitness for the task. Besides all this there was his per- 
sonal charater, an unusual combination of strong traits. 
He had the strength of will that could stand alone and that 
never knew defeat. Pie had a deep religious nature that 
enabled him to speak the new message from his own heart. 
He had the insight into the meaning of the new faith and the 
ability to state it. He had the master mind to plan the 
planting of a church throughout the empire, and the patience 
and skill and tact to carry out that plan. 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

As to Paul the Jew: 2 Cor 11. 22; Rom 11. 1; Phil 3. 5; Acts 
22. 3; 23. 16; 26. 4. 5; Gal 1. 14; Rom 8. 2; 9. 1-5. 

As to Paul the Hellenist: Acts 17. 16-34- Paul meets these 
Greeks as a Palestinian Jew could not have done. Note his tact and 
courtesy, and his skill in finding a point of contact for his message. 

As to Paul the Roman: Acts 16. 36-39; 21. 39; 22. 25-29; 25. 
10-12. 



CHAPTER XXVI 
CONVERSION AND CALL 

For some men life unfolds in a simple and direct prog- Atwice-bom 
ress from beginning to end. These have been called the man 
once-born men. There are others whose life is marked by 
a great break, a revolution through which at last they find 
their true selves. These are the twice-born men, and such was 
Paul. His whole life falls into two distinct parts, divided 
by his conversion. Neither his thought nor his work can 
be understood without reference to that experience. 
Through that experience Paul won his message, for his 
burning message is, first of all, something that he himself 
lived and achieved; and in that same experience he ob- 
tained his call. 

Paul was a young man at the time of Stephen's death. The opponent 
It seems that his residence was then in Jerusalem, and that 
he had remained there after finishing his course under 
Gamaliel. If so, he was in Jerusalem during the time of 
Jesus' public ministry. In any case, so devoted a Jew 
would have been at the passover, whether living in Jeru- 
salem or at Tarsus. All this makes it probable that Paul 
had seen Jesus and was in the city at the time of his 
death. He knew the first Christian community and its 
teachings. So strong a nature as his could not take a 
passive attitude. He opposed the new movement with all 
his might, and for two reasons. In the first place, it 
was a delusion. It believed in a dead Messiah. Its Mes- 
siah was one that the law called accursed because he had 
been put to death upon a tree (Deut 21. 22, 23). In the 
second place, these Nazarenes were setting up something 
beside the law and above it. Stephen's teaching made that 
clear, and Paul consented to his death. 

How did the change come in Paul's faith? That it was 
173 



i74 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

Preparation sudden does not imply that there was no preparation for 
s^on^ne^tive **• There was, first of all, a negative preparation. Paul 
had found out that his religion of the law was a failure. 
It is true he was very zealous: "I advanced in the Jews' 
religion beyond many of mine age among my countrymen, 
being more exceedingly zealous for the traditions of my 
fathers" (Gal I. 14). But it has often been noted that men 
may be most intolerant of others when they have become 
uncertain of their own position. They are fighting enemies 
both within and without. Of this fight in Paul's case we 
have a picture from his own hand in Rom 7. It is hard 
to put ourselves back into this chapter. The law was for 
this young man the special gift with which God had distin- 
guished his people, raising them by its possession far above 
the nations. That law was his religion. To keep it was 
the way of life. Because of such obedience the Messiah 
and the new kingdom were to come. In sober fact, how- 
ever, the law had brought him not life but death. Paul 
was too honest and too deeply in earnest to deceive him- 
self. The law, in the first place, stirred up his evil de- 
sires. The very commandments became simply occasions 
for his sinning, just as too many rules in a schoolroom will 
provoke boys to the opposite (Rom 7. 7-11). In the second 
place, the law served to make plain his hopelessness. It 
showed him that there was another law in him, a law 
of selfishness and impurity and sin. His conscience told 
him that the law was right and good, but his own life 
followed another law. "I consent unto the law that it is 
good. But I am carnal, sold under sin. The good which 
I would I do not: but the evil which I would not, that I 
practice" (Rom 7. 14-23). And this brought him face to 
face with the third fact: the law is good, but it has no 
power. It can stand above me commanding and condemn- 
ing, but it cannot help me. What I need is a new law 
within me, such as that of which Jeremiah spoke. "Wretched 
man that I am ! who shall deliver me out of the body of 



CONVERSION AND CALL 175 

this death?" (Rom 7. 24). This is Paul's interpretation 
of his old life. Paul is not merely theorizing here. There 
are years of earnest effort and bitter disappointment back 
of these words. 

The second preparation for the change was positive. Paul The positive 
probably knew Jesus and certainly knew the first disciples. P reparat,on 
Paul was not the kind of man to carry on such a campaign of 
persecution without a study of this movement which he 
opposed, and. without adjusting himself to its claims. Fur- 
ther, he had seen these men. Earnest, but restless and dis- 
satisfied, he saw the enthusiasm and joy and peace of 
these disciples. Pie saw Stephen full of joy and peace in 
the very moment of his death. With a man of his deep 
religious nature such impressions would register them- 
selves deeply. These men possessed what he had been striv- 
ing for in vain. 

With all the preparation, the change came not gradually The 
but with a sudden crisis. There are five notable references expenence 
to this event in his letters — Gal 1. 15-17; 1 Cor 9. 1 ; 15. 8; 
2 Cor 4. 6. And three accounts are given in the book of Acts : 
9. 1-19; 22. 4-21 ; 26. 9-18. These accounts differ in details. 
They agree in the main. In his persecution of these Naza- 
renes he had taken a commission from the Sanhedrin and was 
on his way to Damascus. On the road he had a vision of the 
risen Christ. Luke speaks of a voice, but the vision is the 
central fact and the one to which he himself refers. He saw 
the Lord. Luke says that Paul began at once to preach 
Christ in Damascus (Acts 9. 20). Paul declares that he first 
went away into Arabia. The latter was undoubtedly the 
case. A new experience had come to him that was to 
change his faith and his life. It was like Paul, both as 
man of thought and man of action, that he should look 
its meaning full in the face and shape his life accordingly. 
For such thought he goes into Arabia. 

The vision of the risen Christ meant even more to Paul The changed 
than it did to the disciples at Jerusalem. Jesus is not dead of Christ 



i 7 6 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The changed 
idea of 
religion 



but living. He is not the deluded and defeated leader ; 
he is the Messiah, "declared to be the Son of God with 
power, according to the spirit of holiness, by the resurrec- 
tion from the dead" (Rom i. 4). The vision thus removed 
from Paul's path his first stumbling-block. The cross was 
the second stone of stumbling, as Paul found it later with 
his countrymen when he preached to them. He who died 
upon the tree was accursed. Now, however, he saw that 
the curse was borne for men. The death was not God's 
condemnation of this man, but God's love for all men, that 
men might be saved from their sins. Hence the death on 
the cross, which had been his stumbling-block, was to be- 
come the center of his message. For him it was to be the 
unsurpassed measure of God's love, the supreme deed by 
which God sought to win men to himself. 

But all this had a decisive meaning for Paul's own re- 
ligious life. It was not simply that he had been mistaken 
in persecuting the Messiah. His whole life and effort had 
been wrong. No wonder he spent his three days at Da- 
mascus without food and drink. He saw his whole life as 
a failure. He had thought of religion simply as something 
to be done. With all his heart he wanted to be righteous, 
but the righteousness was to be his own doing. And he 
had thought that by such doing and such righteousness 
his people might bring in the Kingdom and cause the Mes- 
siah to come. All that was changed. The Messiah was 
already here. God had sent his Son, not because they had 
earned it, but just because of his own love and mercy. 
That was the great difference — the changed thought of 
God. Paul had come here to Jesus' thought of God as the 
loving Father. What had been for Jesus the simple ex- 
pression of direct faith, Paul had gained through this 
struggle and by the vision of the cross: God is not the 
giver of laws justifying men only as they have kept all 
his commands. He is the God of mercy, the Father. He 
sent his Son into the world that he might reconcile men 



CONVERSION AND CALL 177 

to himself. The righteousness that men cannot earn he 
gives. 

No man knew better than Paul himself how decisive that what the 
change was. What he had prized before, he now put aside : c ge meant 
his Hebrew lineage, his zeal for the law, his strict Phari- 
saic life. In place of the old pride is a new spirit. There 
is the humility and reverence of one who takes the great 
gift of God's forgiveness and love, which no effort of his 
had been able to earn. And there is the joy and confidence 
of one who has found the meaning of life, its treasure and 
its strength. He sets forth the contrast and the change in 
his life in a fine passage : "We are the circumcision, who 
worship by the Spirit of God, and glory in Christ Jesus, 
and have no confidence in the flesh. Though I might also 
have confidence in the flesh. If any other man thinketh 
that he hath whereof he might trust in the flesh, I more: 
circumcised the eighth day, of the stock of Israel, of the 
tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew of the Hebrews; as touch- 
ing the law, a Pharisee; concerning zeal, persecuting the 
church ; touching the righteousness which is in the law, 
blameless. But what things were gain to me, those I counted 
loss for Christ. Yea doubtless, and I count all things but 
loss for the excellency of the knowledge of Christ Jesus 
my Lord: for whom I have suffered the loss of all things, 
and do count them but dung, that I may win Christ, and 
be found in him, not having mine own righteousness, which 
is of the law, but that which is through the faith of Christ, 
the righteousness which is of God by faith: that I may 
know him, and the power of his resurrection, and the fel- 
lowship of his sufferings, being made conformable unto his 
death; if by any means I might attain unto the resurrec- 
tion of the dead. Not as though I had already attained, 
either were already perfect: but I follow after, if that I 
may apprehend that for which also I am apprehended of 
Christ Jesus. Brethren, I count not myself to have ap- 
prehended : but this one thing I do. forgetting those things 



i 7 8 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



Paul finds 
his lifework 



Conversion 
and call 



which are behind, and reaching forth unto those things 
which are before, I press toward the mark for the prize 
of the high calling of God in Christ Jesus" (Phil 3. 3-14). 

In this experience Paul found not only the answer to his 
own needs, but his lifework as well. He was not a man 
who did anything by halves. His religion had been his 
chief interest up to this time, despite the struggle and dis- 
satisfaction of his life. There was far greater reason why 
he should give himself absolutely to the cause of this new 
faith. Here was the answer to his own needs, and he 
wanted others to have it. But his call was not simply to 
preach ; it was to preach to the Gentiles. The twelve were 
at Jerusalem; that was not his place. He saw what they 
had not discerned : this faith was a world faith, not a 
Jewish faith. Judaism with its laws and ceremonies belonged 
to the past. This was a message of the God and Father 
who loved all men, and who asked of men only that they 
should put their trust in him. He had found not simply 
the Messiah to whom the Jews had looked forward, but 
the Saviour who belonged to the world. They at Jeru- 
salem had not seen it; let them preach to the Jews. It 
was his task, laid on him by direct command of God him- 
self, to take this message into the world. No one among 
all his fellows had been a more zealous and devoted Jew 
than he. Now, however, he says, "It was the good pleasure 
of God, who separated me, even from my mother's womb, 
and called me through his grace, to reveal his Son in me, 
that I might preach him among the Gentiles" (Gal I. 14, 
15). That did not mean that he was not to preach to 
Jews. It did mean that he was to go out into the Roman 
world and not to stay in the land of his fathers. 

The work of the great apostle cannot be understood until 
we appreciate his profound conviction as to the direct com- 
mission that he had from God. To this call he goes back 
again and again. When some of the Jewish Christians from 
Jerusalem attack his authority, and insinuate that he 



CONVERSION AND CALL 179 

is an upstart and an innovator without credentials from the 
mother church or recognition from the real apostles, he 
begins his letter of defense by writing himself as "Paul, 
an apostle (not from men, neither through man, but through 
Jesus Christ, and God the Father, who raised him from the 
dead)" (Gal 1. 1). He tells the story of that call before 
King Agrippa in defense of his life, and sums up the 
passion and devotion of his whole life in the phrase: 
"Wherefore, O King Agrippa, I was not disobedient to the 
heavenly vision" (Acts 26. 16-20). The call was like a 
compelling power, not a choice of his own: "Necessity is 
laid upon me; for woe is unto me, if I preach not the 
gospel" (1 Cor 9. 16). And this was his strength in the 
midst of terrible obstacles and persecutions which were a 
constant accompaniment of his work. Back of all these was 
the consciousness that he was an apostle sent forth of 
God (1 Cor 4. 9-13). An apostle was one who had seen 
Christ, and who had received from him the commission to 
bear his gospel. The vision and the commission had come 
to him, and with all his personal humility he set that 
commission proudly side by side with those of Peter and 
James and John (Gal 2. 7-9). 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

Paul's life as a Jew under the law : Rom 7. 

The three accounts of the conversion in Acts: 9. 1-19; 22. 
4-21 ; 26. 9-18. 

Paul's own references to the same : Gal 1. 15-17 ; 1 Cor 9. 1 ; 15. 8; 
2 Cor 4. 6; Phil 3. 3-14. 

Compare the four accounts of the conversion and Paul's course 
immediately thereafter as given in Acts and Galatians. Note the 
agreement and the differences. The preference naturally is to be 
given to Paul's own account in Galatians. 
Read Gal 1. 1-17 ; 1 Cor 4. 9-13. 



CHAPTER XXVII 
DAMASCUS, SYRIA, AND CILICIA 

The periods Paul's life falls naturally into four periods : ( I ) The 

years before the conversion; (2) seventeen years of quiet 
labor in Damascus, Syria, and Cilicia; (3) seven years of* 
world mission ; (4) five years of imprisonment. These last 
years may have been followed by a brief period of liberty 
and a second imprisonment, but of this we cannot be cer- 
tain. The third period is the only one of which we have 
any detailed knowledge. Fortunately, these are the years 
of Paul's great achievements, where it is most important 
for us to know. 

The sources We have two sources of knowledge for our study of 
Paul's work — his letters and the book of Acts. These ac- 
counts supplement each other. Acts gives an outline of 
Paul's life, and connects this with the growth of the church 
as a whole. But we learn very little from Acts about the 
real life of the Pauline churches. Because Luke is de- 
scribing the spread of the church, he tells simply how the 
churches were founded. The letters, on the other hand, 
tell us how these churches grew, what their life was, and 
how the new religion met the many questions that con- 
fronted it in the Roman world. Where Luke and Paul 
differ, we must follow the latter; for Paul writes of what 
he knows at first hand, while Luke is largely dependent 
upon others and writes at a much later period. There are 
three places in which such differences may appear: (1) 
Luke emphasizes the part played by the Jerusalem church, 
and her authority and supervision. Paul's letters show how 
the great Gentile church grew up apart from the founding 
or direction of the Jerusalem leaders. (2) Luke is inclined 
to emphasize the idea of harmony. The letters reveal the 
180 



DAMASCUS, SYRIA, AND CILICIA 181 

conflict that shook the church in the first generation: 
whether Christianity was to be a world faith and a reli- 
gion of the spirit, or a Jewish sect and a religion of the 
law. (3) Occasionally there seems to be a difference in 
order of events. Paul, for example, declares that he went 
up to Jerusalem at the close of the fourteen years in Syria 
and Cilicia, and that he had his conference with the apostles 
at this time. Luke places this conference after the first mis- 
sionary journey. 

The first three years of this period Paul spent in Damas- Damascus 
cus. Through Ananias, he came in touch with the disciples 
there and probably began preaching at once. His work 
ends with a persecution, the first in the long list that he was 
to suffer. Instigated by the Jews, the governor tried to 
seize him, and Paul escaped only by sudden and secret 
flight (2 Cor 11. 32, 33; Acts 9. 23-25). 

Then follows Paul's first visit to Jerusalem since his The first 
conversion (Gal 1. 18-23). Despite Acts 9. 26-30, we ^^ lem 
must accept Paul's statement here, that he did not take 
up any public work or come before the church as a whole. 
He spent two weeks in quiet with Peter, meeting only 
James in addition. Beyond doubt he laid before Peter his 
own work and his conception of the gospel, and this can 
hardly have been without influence upon the latter. Peter 
had something to give Paul in return. True, Paul em- 
phatically asserts his independence of the Jerusalem apostles 
so far as his gospel is concerned; but that does not mean 
that Paul would not welcome eagerly what Peter could tell 
him as to the life of Jesus, and especially his teachings. 
Paul's gospel was not dependent upon such details, but his 
letters show that he was not indifferent to them. The story 
of the suffering and death of Jesus would be of especial 
interest, and this he used in his preaching (Gal 3. 1). He 
mentions other facts about the life of Jesus in his letters. 
Probably in his preaching to Gentiles in particular he would 
narrate the outline of Jesus' life. More important than 



Cilicia 



182 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

this is the remarkable insight into the inner spirit of Jesus, 
his love and patience and humility, which Paul shows even 
in passages where the name of Jesus is not mentioned, 
such as 1 Cor 13. Besides this Paul would be interested in 
the teachings of Jesus. A word of Jesus stood for Paul 
beside the Old Testament as a word of authority. He must 
have welcomed, therefore, all that Peter could tell him from 
his rich memories of personal intercourse with Jesus. 
Syria and Fourteen years follow of which we know equally little. 

During all this time Paul tells us that he kept away from 
Jerusalem, working in Syria and Cilicia. The latter was his 
home province and it was natural that he should go back 
to Tarsus to begin. The center of the Syrian territory was 
Antioch. It was a great city, ranking next to Rome and 
Alexandria in importance. Here East and West met and 
all nations were found mingled together, including many 
Jews. It was a commercial center of first rank. In these 
respects it resembled Corinth and Ephesus, like them join- 
ing to its wealth great luxury and profligacy. It is sig- 
nificant for Paul's work, that just as Antioch became his 
center now, so for the last period of his work Corinth and 
Ephesus were his headquarters. To Antioch Paul comes 
upon invitation of Barnabas. 

Paul's plan of work during these fourteen years was 
probably not very different from that of the seven years 
that follow. He did not simply remain in the cities, but, 
making Tarsus and Antioch his centers, traveled up and 
down the coast and through the surrounding regions. We 
have one passage from his own hand which probably re- 
fers at least in part to this period. In it he gives a mov- 
ing picture of his life of unremitting toil, of hardship and 
constant danger, as he goes from place to place planting 
his little communities of disciples and watching over them. 
The experiences of sea and shipwreck may well have 
come in this time, as much of his travel would naturally 
be by vessel. "Are they ministers of Christ? (I speak as 



DAMASCUS, SYRIA, AND CILICIA 183 

one beside himself) I more ; in labors more abundantly, in 
prisons more abundantly, in stripes above measure, in deaths 
oft. Of the Jews five times received I forty stripes save one. 
Thrice was I beaten with rods, once was I stoned, thrice 
I suffered shipwreck, a night and a day have I been in the 
deep ; in journeyings often, in perils of rivers, in perils of 
robbers, in perils from my countrymen, in perils from the 
Gentiles, in perils in the city, in perils in the wilderness, in 
perils in the sea, in perils among false brethren; in labor 
and travail, in watchings often, in hunger and thirst, in 
fastings often, in cold and nakedness. Besides those things 
that are without, there is that which presseth upon me daily, 
anxiety for all the churches. Who is weak, and I am not 
weak? who is caused to stumble, and I burn not?" (2 Cor 
11. 23-29). 

We have called these years the time of quiet labor. They significance 
were, however, by no means lacking in importance. In two ° speno 
respects they were of the greatest significance for Paul's 
work. (1) Paul himself was being trained for his great 
position of responsibility and leadership. He was a young 
man when he began; he was a tried veteran when he con- 
cluded. These years of work and thought showed him the 
wealth of the Christian religion, and ripened in him those 
thoughts with which his later letters are filled. (2) Paul 
was firmly establishing a strong Gentile church, and was 
doing this on a basis of freedom from the Jewish law. 
When he went up to Jerusalem at the end of these years 
the Gentile church was already a fact, and the mother 
church could do no less than recognize it. 

A chronological outline of Paul's life may be added chronological 
here. These dates are only approximate, and vary somewhat outbae 
with different scholars. Paul was probably born about the 
same time as Jesus, and was converted from two to five 
years after Jesus' death. 

I. Period of youth and preparation. 
II. Seventeen years of quiet work, 35 to 52. 



1 84 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

(i) At Damascus, three years. 

(2) In Cilicia and Syria, with headquarters at Tarsus 
and Antioch, fourteen years. 

III. The missionary journeys, 52 to 59. 

(1) A brief journey through Cyprus and Galatia. 

(2) Work in Macedonia and Achaia, with headquarters 
at Corinth for one and a half years. 

(3) Work in Asia with headquarters at Ephesus for two 
years. 

IV. The years of imprisonment, 59 to 64. 

(1) At Qesarea, two years. 

(2) On the way to Rome, one year. 

(3) In Rome, two years. 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

Read Gal 1. 15-23; Acts II. 19-26; 2 Cor 11. 23-29. 
Trace upon the map the journeys so far referred to: Jerusalem 
to Damascus and return, Jerusalem to Tarsus, Tarsus to Antioch. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 
GENTILE AND JEWISH CHRISTIANS 



Some twenty years had now elapsed since the death of Jewish 

and Gei 
churches 



Jesus. The church was well established through two large ai 



districts. The first district had for its center Jerusalem, 
and included the churches of Judaea, Samaria, Galilee, and 
the cities of the adjoining coast lands such as Caesarea and 
Joppa. These churches were predominantly Jewish. The 
second district was to the north, and included Syria and 
Cilicia. These churches were predominantly Gentile. At 
the head of the former work were James and Peter. At the 
head of the latter was Paul. 

These two divisions of the church were not merely geo- The question 
graphical. Nor were they racial, a matter of Jew and ° elaw 
Gentile. The real question at issue was: What is Christi- 
anity? The immediate question, however, was that of the 
Jewish law. The life of the faithful Jew was regulated 
by innumerable laws. Besides the religious feasts and cere- 
monies, there were endless restrictions about what was 
clean and unclean applying to food and places and per- 
sons. To these rules the Jew was accustomed from his 
childhood. They were looked upon as sacred and unchang- 
ing, as given by God through Moses. What should the 
Christian do about these rules? 

The first disciples probably thought nothing about the How the 
matter. The rules were more or less a habit of life, and they i uestion 

- arose 

continued them. It was another matter when the gospel 
spread to the Gentiles. Here two serious questions arose: 
(i) Must the Gentiles be circumcised and keep the Jewish 
laws in order to be Christians? (2) If the Gentile converts 
do not keep the law, how can the Jewish Christians who 
keep the law associate with them? For the great object 
185 



1 86 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



Peter and 
Cornelius 



The situation 
at Antiocb 



of the law was to keep ceremonially clean ; to associate 
with those who did not keep the law would render a man 
unclean in the same way as if he did not keep the law 
himself. 

These questions the church had not fairly faced and 
settled. Luke, it is true, tells us that this whole matter was 
met by Peter. He gives us the story in Acts 10. I to II. 18. 
There he tells how Peter, in obedience to a vision, goes to 
Caesarea and preaches the gospel to a Gentile, a Roman 
centurion named Cornelius. The latter is called "a devout 
man," that is, a Jewish proselyte, though apparently not 
circumcised. Peter goes in to this man, and baptizes him 
and his household, though such association meant cere- 
monial impurity to a Jew. On his return he is remonstrated 
with by the brethren at Jerusalem. In reply he tells of 
the vision that he had of the clean and unclean meat, and 
the words that came to him, "What God hath cleansed, 
make not thou common." The church then acquiesces in 
this position. As a matter of fact, however, this was the 
whole cause of Paul's conflict. If the church did take this 
position at this time, they did not maintain it. It seems 
quite likely that Luke has put this story concerning Peter 
at an earlier date than where it really belongs. 

The real crisis came at Antioch at the close of this period 
of Paul's work. So long as he was not disturbed from 
without, Paul had felt no need of raising the question. He 
had preached his gospel of faith to the Gentiles without 
asking them to keep the law. He had probably allowed 
Jewish Christians to take their own course. There was no 
harm in his eyes in keeping the law so long as men saw 
clearly that they were not saved by this, but by their trust 
in Christ, and so long as these Jewish Christians were 
ready to associate with their Gentile brethren. The church 
at Antioch was mainly Gentile and the Jewish Christians 
did not hesitate to sit down with these Gentiles at the 
Christian meals which they ate together. This was the 



GENTILE AND JEWISH CHRISTIANS 187 

"liberty in Christ Jesus" which Paul preached and which 
the Jewish brethren accepted. 

It was men from the Jerusalem church that brought about judaizers 
the crisis. The church there, it seems, had been moving j e °™ salem 
backward toward Judaism rather than away from it. Among 
the new converts were not a few Pharisees, and there was 
an increasing element that stood for strict observance of 
the law (Acts 15. 5). They had at least the example of 
James, if not his leadership. This party sent representa- 
tives down to Antioch to find out what the practice there 
really was. Paul calls them false brethren, "who came in 
privily to spy out our liberty which we have in Christ Jesus, 
that they might bring us into bondage" (Gal 2. 4; Acts 
15. 2). These men began teaching Paul's converts that they 
could not expect to be saved if they did not keep the law, 
putting circumcision as the sign and test of the whole (Acts 
15. 1). They probably attacked Paul's authority at the same 
time, declaring that he was no genuine apostle, but that the 
true apostles were at Jerusalem, and that these kept the 
law. 

Paul decided to act at once and went up to Jerusalem. Why Paul 
He had a threefold reason for going. (1) The immediate Jemsaiem 
reason was that he saw his work in danger, and he wanted 
to secure freedom for carrying on that work among the 
Gentiles. He did not ask for authority, for he believed that 
his authority came direct from God. He simply wanted 
recognition of the fact that his right to proclaim this gospel 
was on a par with theirs. (2) Paul wanted to maintain 
fellowship with the mother church for the sake of his Gentile 
converts. That church was the living link with a great past. 
They represented a heritage of which Paul the Christian 
was as proud as Paul the Jew had been: the whole story 
of Jehovah's dealings with his people, the words of prophet 
and psalmist, and all the rest of the Scripture. The Chris- 
tian Church was but the continuation of that history, the 
true Israel. The Old Testament was its Sacred Scripture. 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The 

Jerusalem 
conference: 
the agree- 



The mother church joined these pagan converts to that past. 
(3) And, finally, Paul believed in the one church and the 
one fellowship of Christian believers. By this he did not 
mean one organization or one central authority. He never 
submitted his churches to direction from Jerusalem or 
elsewhere. The unity was that of the Spirit and of fellow- 
ship. Then, as later, he did all that he could to maintain it. 
The body of Christ was one. The disciples were all brothers 
and members one of another. 

Luke gives us some interesting material in his account of 
the Jerusalem meeting (Acts 15), but we must turn to Paul 
to get the real meaning of that occasion. Of the details we 
cannot be sure. It seems that there were two gatherings. 
Paul and Barnabas reported their work before the church 
as a whole. The Judaizing disciples raised their demand 
that Gentile converts should keep the law. Paul had with 
him a Greek convert, Titus, who was not circumcised. 
Their request that Titus should submit to the rite Paul flatly 
refused. Then, however, Paul lays the matter before Peter 
and James and John in private conference. From them he 
asks the recognition of his right to preach the gospel to 
the Gentiles, and that there should be fellowship between the 
Gentile churches and Jerusalem. Face to face with the 
story of his great work, these men cannot say no. They see 
the Spirit of God in what Paul is doing and they give him 
the hand of fellowship. They will preach, as before, to the 
Jews ; he to the Gentiles. Paul has won his first great point, 
freedom to carry on his work. In return he promises to 
remember the poor at Jerusalem, a promise that he loyally 
carried out. 

Luke relates, in addition to this, that the church issued a 
formal decree requiring that the Gentile Christians should 
"abstain from the pollutions of idols [that is, from meat 
that had been offered to idols], and from fornication, and 
from what is strangled, and from blood" (Acts 15. 20). If 
such a decree was given at this time, it does not appear to 



GENTILE AND JEWISH CHRISTIANS 189 

have had any particular effect. Certainly, it did not solve 
the problem of the relations of Jews and Gentiles. Paul 
does not mention this in speaking of the conference, nor 
does he refer to it later when he takes up, with the Corinthian 
church for example, one of the matters here referred to. 
The decree as such seems to have had no authority for him. 
It is quite possible that such a decree was issued later and 
sent to the churches of Syria and Cilicia. It was certainly 
not carried by Paul west of the Taurus. 

The agreement at the Jerusalem conference was really a The new 
compromise, not a solution. How insufficient it was soon ^f '^ at 
appeared. Peter in the course of his work came to Antioch, 
where the Jewish Christians had associated freely with 
their Gentile brothers. When Peter came down he did the 
same. Into this scene of fellowship there came some of the 
Judaizing Christians from Jerusalem. Paul says they came 
from James. What they said we do not know. They may 
have admitted that the Gentiles could be Christians without 
keeping the law. But they insisted that a good Jew must 
keep the law and dare not associate with such Gentiles. 
What right had he to throw over the sacred law of Moses ? 
Why should he give up the heritage of the fathers that had 
set Israel apart, and put himself on a plane with the Gentiles ? 
With such arguments they not only swept Peter off his feet, 
but the rest of the Jewish Christians, and even Paul's old 
friend, Barnabas. 

Here, at last, the real issue appears, and it is Paul that The real 
brings it out. The real question is not that of dividing 
territory, Jewish and Gentile, or recognizing each other's 
work. The question is, What is Christianity? Or, as Paul 
puts it, How shall a man be justified? Paul does not simply 
take the defensive. He attacks Peter. Peter is dissembling, 
playing a part. Peter believes as truly as Paul that he is 
saved not by keeping rules, but by faith in Christ ; by the 
mercy of God, and not by what he earns through keeping 
the law. But if Peter expects to be saved by this, why does 



190 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

he try to compel these Gentiles to keep the law? (Gal 2. 
14-16). 

Just what the issue of the matter was at Antioch we do 
not know. Two results are plain. (1) The Jerusalem 
agreement turned Paul definitely toward the larger Gentile 
world. The final and greatest period of his ministry now 
begins. From Antioch he moves on to Galatia, from Galatia 
to Macedonia, Achaia, and Asia, while beyond these his 
eyes rest upon Rome and distant Spain. (2) The conflicts 
with the Judaizers continue, and form Paul's severest trial. 
But there is never any doubt in Paul's mind as to his right 
or as to the final issue. History justifies him. The gospel 
which moves through the Roman world is a gospel that is 
free from Judaism and Jewish law. And Christianity ceases 
to be a Jewish faith and becomes a world religion. 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

Read Gal 2; Acts 15. 1-35. 

Compare carefully these two accounts. Some scholars hold that 
Luke is following the common custom of writers of his day in 
composing the speeches that are assigned to Peter and James, either 
using materials that he had on hand or setting forth what he 
assumed to be their position. 



of an empire 



CHAPTER XXIX 
PAUL THE MISSIONARY 

Now there begin the seven years of work which mark the Seven great 
crown of Paul's ministry. Into these seven years is crowded years 
an achievement beyond what many great men have wrought 
in a lifetime. One province after another Paul lays claim 
to in the name of Christ. With restless energy he carries 
the message, assisted by a group of workers. Nor is he 
content to be a mere wandering preacher. As he goes he 
establishes Christian communities, and over these he keeps 
watch, dispatching one or the other of his assistants, or^ 
sending letters like those which have come down to us under 
his name. 

Beneath all these varied activities there lay a definite plan, The conquest 
which comes to the surface again and again. Paul did not 
strike out at random into the Gentile world. His plan was 
nothing less than to win the whole empire, and to do this 
by planting the church in order in the Roman provinces that 
surrounded the Mediterranean. In an interesting passage, 
written to the Romans about the close of this period, he 
tells of these plans. "God sent me," he says, "to be a 
minister to the Gentiles. This mission I have fulfilled from 
Jerusalem around as far as Illyricum. I have one last task 
here, to take to Jerusalem the money that I have collected 
for the church there. This done, I shall start for Spain, 
stopping on the way at Rome to see you as I have long 
wished to do" (Rom 15. 14-33). This imperial plan appears 
in the way in which Paul refers to his work. As a rule, he 
does not mention the cities where he works, but speaks, 
rather, of the provinces. He refers to Asia, not to Ephesus, 
to Macedonia and Achaia, not to Corinth and Philippi (Rom 
16. 5 ; 1 Thess 1. 7). 

191 



192 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



Paul saw the 
meaning of 
Christianity 



Certain limits 



Missionaries 
in the Roman 
world 



It was a great conception, this winning of an empire for 
the new faith. Paul has been called a second Alexander, 
moving westward instead of eastward in this march of con- 
quest. More than anything else it brings to light the differ- 
ence between him and the Jerusalem leaders, and the 
significance of Paul's idea of the gospel. With the excep- 
tion of Peter, it seemed that they were content to remain 
at Jerusalem, praying and waiting for the heavens to open 
again and Christ to return. Paul saw the wealth and the 
meaning of the new faith as they did not, a religion of life 
and power for all men and not alone the Jews. That concep- 
tion was back of the mission: "I am not ashamed of the 
gospel : for it is the power of God unto salvation to every 
one that believeth ; to the Jew first, and also to the Greek." 
That was why he felt himself sent to all the Gentiles and 
counted himself "debtor both to Greeks and to Barbarians" 
(Rom 1. 13-17). 

This general plan had certain limits. (1) Paul would 
not go where others had laid the foundation (Rom 15. 20). 
That is why he makes it plain to the Roman church that he 
is simply stopping off to see them on his way to Spain 
(Rom 15. 24). (2) Paul would not work in Jewish terri- 
tory. This may help answer the question sometimes raised, 
Why did not Paul, who swept around the circle of the sea 
from Jerusalem to Spain, go south to Egypt, especially to 
Alexandria? The reason may be that Alexandria was so 
much of a Jewish city. It had a large and prosperous Jewish 
population, which had its separate quarter, even having 
its own city walls inclosing it. (3) One other element 
enters into Paul's plans. He felt that the return of the 
Lord was near. The time was short. He had to give his 
message and start the work and care for it from a distance 
as well as he could. But he could not remain, he must 
hurry on. 

The missionary was not a strange figure in that age. It 
was a day of religious ferment. The old national religions 



PAUL THE MISSIONARY 193 

were passing away. New cults were coming in, especially 
the mystery religions from the east. Traveling merchants 
and soldiers were often zealous propagators of such faiths. 
There were also traveling teachers of rhetoric and philo- 
sophy. The Jewish missionaries were probably the most 
active. Jesus spoke of the Pharisees as compassing sea 
and land to make one proselyte. The bitterness of the Jews 
against Paul was caused largely by his success in making 
converts and in drawing away the proselytes whom they 
had won. 

Paul's first act in coming to a city would be to find quarters Paul's 
for himself. Ordinarily, he planned to stay for some period se^j 16 ° rt 
and so sought a place where he could carry on his trade of 
tent-maker. For to his many burdens he added this other, 
that of self-support. From only one church, that at Philippi, 
was he willing to take aid. He believed in the right to such 
support for Christian apostles. He defended the principle 
and his own right to this later on. But for himself he 
would not assert this claim. "We bear all things, that we 
may cause no hindrance to the gospel of Christ" (1 Cor 9. 
1-18). Paul probably had a double reason. He did not 
want to be confounded with traveling rhetoricians who 
talked simply for hire, and he wanted to remove all ground 
for misunderstanding and criticism of his motives on the 
part of his Jewish enemies. 

Paul's next task was to find a way of approach for his Paul and the 
message. That led him naturally to the synagogue. He synagogue 
did not consider this a violation of his agreement to go to 
the Gentiles. Apparently, that meant to Paul simply that 
he was to keep away from Jewish territory. But here, where 
none of the apostles from Jerusalem came, there was no 
reason why he should not speak to the Jews. This, however, 
was not the main reason for his presence in the synagogue. 
Jewish missionary work had been carried on for years, and 
while the Jews were hated by many, there were others who 
were attracted by their lofty moral and religious teachings. 



194 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



After the 
synagogue 



Paul as 
speaker 



These adherents or sympathizers afforded some of Paul's 
first and best converts. 

In the free worship of the synagogue there was always 
opportunity for such a visitor to speak. Naturally, Paul 
could not continue his preaching permanently in the syna- 
gogue. Some Jews he won, but the major part would 
refuse his message. Often they followed him from one city 
to the other and turned the Jews against him. But he had 
found interesting hearers among the proselytes, and now 
through these he could meet other Gentiles. So his work 
was continued usually in the house of some well-to-do con- 
vert. Thus in Philippi he was guest of Lydia, at Thessa- 
lonica he used the house of Jason, and at Corinth that of 
Titus Justus (Acts 16. 15; 17. 7; 18. 7). In Ephesus we 
read that he continued in the synagogue three months. 
Apparently, Paul's success there demanded a larger room 
than a private house could afford, and so he spoke in a 
public hall, "the school of Tyrannus" (Acts 19. 8, 9). One 
of the oldest manuscripts of Acts adds to these verses the 
words "from the fifth to the tenth hour," that is, from eleven 
to four. Paul, it would seem, rented for this part of the 
day a hall which was given to other uses as well. 

Judged by the common standards of his day, Paul was 
not a great speaker. It was a day when rhetoric and oratory 
were carefully cultivated, and of these things Paul made no 
pretense. His enemies said that he was rude of speech, that 
his speech was of no account and his bodily presence weak 
(2 Cor 11. 6; 10. 10). Paul makes no denial. He says 
to the Corinthians : "I was with you in weakness, and in 
fear, and in much trembling. And my speech and my 
preaching were not in persuasive words of wisdom" ( 1 Cor 
2. 3. 4). At Athens they called him a babbler (Acts 17. 18). 
It is a fair question, however, whether the fault did not lie 
in the artificial standards of the time rather than with Paul 
himself. Simple, direct, unpolished, even rude, his speech 
probably was. But it met the final test: he stirred men's 



PAUL THE MISSIONARY 195 

hearts and swept them off their feet. He carried the council 
of Jerusalem, though he stood there almost alone. And how 
many a later company, Jew and Gentile, cultured and pagan, 
was borne down by the earnestness and sincerity and moral 
power of his address. Earnestness and spiritual power 
were the mark of Paul's speech. The man was wholly lost 
in his message. Men did not listen to fine phrases, they 
heard a man, and a man aflame with his thought. Some 
might call him mad, but others trembled (Acts 26. 24; 
24. 25). With this earnestness went a power of will that 
made Paul commanding when he spoke as when he acted. 
Back of all else was the utter devotion of his soul and his 
utter dependence upon God. Men felt that God was speak- 
ing through this man, and he could call the Corinthians to 
witness that though in weakness, yet his speech was "in the 
demonstration of the Spirit and of power." 

But though Paul's speech was plain and direct, with no His 
regard for niceties of style, there were times when it must eloquence 
have risen to heights of real eloquence. We are justified 
here in drawing conclusions from his letters ; for these were 
spoken, not written, being dictated by him. Even with the 
limitation of slow dictation, Paul's letters show us passages 
where his soul, kindling at the great truths he is consider- 
ing, rises to speech of beauty as well as power. Such is the 
simple but beautiful song of love that lifts itself above the 
controversies of the Corinthian church ( 1 Cor 13) . Such are 
the passages which interrupt again and again his argument 
in the letter to the Romans. "Who shall separate us from 
the love of Christ? shall tribulation, or anguish, or persecu- 
tion, or famine, or nakedness, or peril, or sword? Even as 
it is written, 

For thy sake we are killed all the day long; 
We were accounted as sheep for the slaughter. 

Nay, in all these things we are more than conquerors 
through him that loved us. For I am persuaded, that neither 



196 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor things 
present, nor things to come, nor powers, nor height, nor 
depth, nor any other creature, shall be able to separate us 
from the love of God, which is in Jesus Christ our Lord" 
(Rom 8. 35-39)- 

What Paul said in his sermons we cannot know with 
certainty. Xot one of them lies before us. His letters are 
not sermons. He writes in these to companies of Christians, 
discussing special questions of faith and life. We find 
theology in them and practical maxims, but this is quite 
different from what he would bring to a group of Gentiles 
to whom he was preaching the gospel for the first time. 
And yet we are not left without some real knowledge. Brief 
as it is, such a summary as that given us in Acts of the 
sermon at Athens is suggestive of Paul's method in a par- 
ticular situation. And of much more importance are some 
of his references and passages in the epistles (i Thess I. 9, 
10; Acts 14. 15-17; Rom 1. 18 to 2. 16; 1 Cor 15. 1-11). 
Paul's The passages just noted suggest what his preaching to the 

message Gentiles was. We may distinguish certain parts in this 

message : ( 1 ) Paul proclaimed to them the living God. He 
probably did not say much about idol-worship. He did not 
need to. That was a dying faith. It was enough to bring 
to them the word of that God who had made the world and 
ruled in history ; who had sent his prophets and in these 
latter days had sent his Son to show forth his mercy, whom 
also he had raised from the dead. (2) He preached to 
their conscience. With searching words he set forth their 
sin. It was not mere sin of ignorance. God had not left 
himself without a witness. There was an inner law that he 
had written in their hearts. But they had darkened this light 
by their disobedience, and had turned to their sinful desires. 
All this God had passed over, but now he was calling men 
to repent ; the day of judgment for men's sins was at hand. 
(3) He preached Jesus Christ. However Paul began, his 
sermon always tended to this. Here was his real message. 



PAUL THE MISSIONARY 197 

All else was preparation. "We are ambassadors therefore," 
he says, "on behalf of Christ, as though God were entreating 
by us : we beseech you on behalf of Christ, be ye reconciled 
to God. Him who knew no sin he made to be sin on our 
behalf; that we might become the righteousness of God in 
him" (2 Cor 5. 20, 21). 

Here Paul had reached the heart of his message — "Christ, Christ 
and him crucified." For him this was no mere phrase or crucified 
formal doctrine as it is so often to-day. It was a gift of 
life that he was bringing to men, and of life here and now. 
That was what it had meant to him. It had changed his 
whole life. He probably did not dwell upon Jesus' words and 
deeds as man. He told how God had sent his Son to men, of 
his death, and how God had raised him from the dead. Then 
he set forth the meaning of all this. It was God's love for 
men. God had done this to win men to himself. This God 
in his mercy was willing to receive them all as his children, 
to give them forgiveness and life. He asked only faith in 
return, that men should trust him and give themselves 
to him. That life was theirs here and now: forgiveness, 
and peace, and the Spirit of God in their hearts. But 
besides this there was a hope : very soon this Jesus was 
to return and set up his final and full kingdom upon the 
earth. 

There is no indication that men responded to this message Failures 
in the mass. In 1 Cor 1. 18-31 is given a picture of the 
failure and success of Paul's appeal. Paul declares that his 
message of the crucified Christ was a stumbling-block to 
the Jews. They wanted signs, that is, indications of power. 
How could they accept a Messiah who, instead of over- 
throwing Israel's enemies, had himself suffered death ? The 
Greeks, he said, thought his preaching foolishness. They 
wanted wisdom, fine rhetoric, and philosophical speculation, 
or strange mysteries such as the new religions from the 
East afforded. Paul brought them a simple message of a 
God who showed his love to men and called them to repent. 



198 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



Lower 
classes won 



The 
brotherhood 



And others would draw back at this moral demand, the call 
to leave sin, to live a new life of righteousness. 

But there were others that were won : some of them by 
the ethical appeal, smitten in their conscience by his search- 
ing words ;' many of them by his message of the living God, 
the God of love and power who could save them from their 
sins and from death. It was a day when the old faiths were 
breaking down, and especially upon the common folks the 
burdens and misery of life rested heavily. What men wanted 
from religion was help, redemption from these ills. That 
was what Paul promised: Christ the power of God and the 
wisdom of God. 

Paul tells us that most of these converts, at least in 
Corinth, were from the poorer classes. Early Christianity, 
as a whole, was a lower and middle-class movement. "Not 
many wise after the flesh, not many mighty, not many 
noble" responded. Every great and permanent religious 
movement has followed this order. It has never filtered 
down from an upper few, but has had its origin in the great 
masses in which the real strength of any generation lies. 

The little bands of converts Paul gathered together. 
Among them were a few of wealth and station. Such a 
convert would offer his house as a meeting place for the 
little brotherhood. Over these circles Paul watched. To 
them he sent his messages, rebuking, exhorting, comforting, 
teaching, encouraging. And these little communities, with 
their spirit of love for each other, with the evident joy and 
peace of their new faith, formed in turn an attractive power 
that drew others from without. At the same time their mem- 
bers became themselves missionaries to propagate the new 
religion with zeal and enthusiasm. And when they moved 
to other places they kindled new fires. It was not Paul and 
Peter and Barnabas alone that spread Christianity. They 
were but leaders of a great company. The new religion 
was a great lay movement. Jesus was a layman. Paul was 
a layman, who never asked ordination from anybody. And 



PAUL THE MISSIONARY 199 

the great work of spreading the faith in the first generation 
was done by men and women whose names have long since 
been lost to us, but whose work remains to this day. 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

Read Rom 15. 14-33. Locate upon the map the provinces of 
Syria, Cilicia, Galatia, Macedonia, Illyricum, Achaia, Asia. Illyricum 
lay along the eastern shore of the Adriatic, extending north to 
Italy. The region is marked Dalmatia upon our map. We have 
no record of Paul's work there. 

As to Paul's trade and support of self, read Acts 18. 1-4; 1 Cor 
9. 1-18. 

For a typical synagogue experience, read Acts 13. 13-16, 42-52. 

Concerning Paul as a speaker, read 1 Cor 2. Read Rom 8. 35-39 
as illustration of what he may have meant by 1 Cor 2. 6, 12. 

As to Paul's message, read 1 Thess I. 9, 10; Acts 14. 15-17; 
Rom 1. 18 to 2. 16; 1 Cor 15. I-II. 

Read 1 Cor 1. 18-31. 



CHAPTER XXX 



GALATIA 



Paul's 
method 



First journey: 
the company 



The seven years of Paul's world mission have usually 
been divided into three missionary "journeys." This, how- 
ever, is misleading. It leads us to think of Paul as wander- 
ing from place to place, stopping a few days or weeks, 
preaching a few sermons, then passing on, and at the end 
of each tour coming back to Antioch. Such was not his 
method. Paul's plan was, rather, to take the great Roman 
provinces one at a time, and to stay long enough in each to 
firmly establish the work, leaving it then in charge of others 
though retaining a general supervision. It is true his stay 
was often cut short by opposition. But he spent a year and 
a half in Achaia with his headquarters at Corinth, and 
twice that time in Ephesus. He probably spent some months 
in Macedonia, mainly at Philippi. Antioch practically ceased 
to be his headquarters during this period. It is a better plan 
of study to take up the provinces one at a time, studying in 
turn Galatia, Macedonia, Achaia, and Asia. 

We need not suppose that Paul mapped out from the 
very first his whole plan of campaign. It is to Cyprus, the 
old home of Barnabas, that they turn first, and their atten- 
dant is John Mark, the cousin of Barnabas. John Mark, 
the traditional author of our second Gospel, may also have 
come originally from Cyprus. But it has been noted that his 
home was in Jerusalem, where his mother's house was a 
meeting place for the disciples. Barnabas had for years 
been a leader. He was a man of broad and unselfish spirit. 
That is shown by the sale of his field, the money for which 
he gave to the Jerusalem church, and by the way in which 
he yielded later to the leadership of his companion in this 
journey. 

200 



GALATIA 201 

The little band of three was sent forth by the Antioch Cyprus 
church with prayer and benediction. From Seleucia, the 
port of Antioch, to Salamis of Cyprus, where they landed, 
was about one hundred and twenty-five miles. There were 
a good many Jews in the island and here at Salamis they 
preached in the synagogues. They traversed the island from 
east to west, probably something over a hundred miles of 
journey. Luke has but one incident of their whole stay, the 
story of the magician, Bar-Jesus, a Jew who was in the 
company of the proconsul, Sergius Paulus. He makes no 
note of conversions, and we learn nothing more of Cyprus 
beyond the fact that Barnabas and Mark made a return 
visit some time later (Acts 13. 1-12). 

"Now Paul and his company set sail from Paphos, and Paulas 
came to Perga in Pamphylia : and John departed from them 
and returned to Jerusalem" (Acts 13. 13). In these words 
Luke marks the change that now comes ; Paul is taking 
the leadership and is moving on to wholly new fields. Bar- 
nabas goes with him. John Mark, perhaps dissatisfied that 
Paul should take his cousin's place, possibly unwilling to 
face the hardships of this new field, turns back again. From 
this time on there is no question of leadership. Paul's com- 
pany changes ; he has many helpers through this period, but 
there is only one directing spirit. 

Paul had now reached the mainland with his face toward in Gaiat 
that West which he was to win for Christ. For the present, 
however, it is not so large a circuit that they make. They 
do not stop in Perga, where they land, but press on to 
Antioch of Pisidia, lying straight to the north, about a 
hundred miles inland. Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe, to which 
they go next, lie to the east and south and rather close 
together. Through these four cities they then retrace their 
steps, stopping, however, this time at Perga. They set sail 
not from Perga but from Attalia near by, and so return to 
Antioch. 

We must not, however, measure the length of their stay 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



Work with 
Jews and 
Gentiles 



Paganism 
at Lystra 



in Galatia by Luke's brief record. The apostles must have 
spent some months at least in this visit. We read of their 
work in Antioch, that "the word of the Lord was spread 
abroad throughout all the region" (Acts 13. 49). Luke 
reports that they stayed a long time at Iconium, and that 
they preached not only in Lystra and Derbe but in the 
country round about (Acts 14. 3, 6). In the main centers 
Paul turned first to the synagogue, as usual, for here in 
Galatia also there were Jews to be found in the larger cities ; 
in Antioch and Iconium the synagogues are specially men- 
tioned. But his main interest was in the Gentiles, and when 
he went into the "region round about," it was Gentile 
mission work. 

One incident of this contact with paganism Luke gives us. 
At Lystra Paul healed a lame man. When the people saw 
what Paul had done, they began shouting, "The gods are 
come down to us in the likeness of men." The old myths 
abounded in tales of gods appearing among men, and it was 
in such remote places that the old faiths were strongest. 
Here at Lystra they cultivated especially the worship of 
Jupiter. As the people used their native tongue, the disciples 
could not understand their cries, and before they knew what 
was happening the priest of Jupiter was present with his 
garlands and his oxen ready to make a sacrifice. To such 
people Paul had to bring his message. The words that Luke 
reports in this connection may well have been his common 
mode of approach in speaking to pagan hearers. They show 
his skill and tact, and the broad sympathy that enabled him 
to come into contact with men upon whom the Jew, proud 
of his faith, would commonly have looked with utter scorn. 
"We bring you good tidings, that ye should turn from these 
vain things unto a living God, who made the heaven and the 
earth and the sea, and all that in them is : who in the genera- 
tions gone by suffered all the nations to walk in their own 
ways. And yet he left not himself without witness, in that 
he did good and gave you from heaven rains and fruitful 



GALATIA 203 

seasons, filling your hearts with food and gladness" (Acts 
14. 15-17). 

Traveling through such a country involved great hard- Hardship and 
ship, heightened by Paul's efforts to support himself. Here, recompens 
as later, Paul met the opposition of the Jews. Once his 
life was endangered. After the brief enthusiasm at Lystra, 
the Jews from Antioch and Iconium stirred up the people 
against him and he was stoned and left for dead. It was 
enough for Paul, however, that in all these places he was 
able to gather his groups of converts. His devotion to them 
is seen in the fact that when he reaches Derbe in the East, 
he does not push on to Tarsus and home. Despite hardship 
and the treatment he has received, he retraces his course, 
that he may comfort and build up these little companies. 
They in turn were devotedly attached to him. How they 
had received him is indicated by Gal 4. 12-20. He inti- 
mates there that he had had plans which would have taken 
him farther, and was detained in Galatia because of health. 
Perhaps it was a trouble with his eyes. In any case, he calls 
to their mind how they received him "as an angel of God, 
even as Christ Jesus," and that so far from despising 
him because of his illness, they were ready to pluck out 
their eyes and give them to him. As for him, he counts 
them his little children, whom he has brought forth in toil 
and pain. 

It seems quite certain that it was to these churches that The letter to 
the epistle to the Galatians was written. We have already 
studied the first two chapters of this letter in connection 
with the Jerusalem conference. We do not know when ic 
was written, probably not long after the founding of the 
churches, for Paul reproaches them with removing so 
quickly from his gospel (Gal 1. 6). The thought of the 
letter is not always easy to follow. We are not concerned 
to-day about Jewish laws and rules and their relation to 
Christianity, and the letter at first does not seem of interest. 
But it is different when wc appreciate the importance of 



204 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The 
opposition 



The answer: 
a gospel 



Salvation 
by faith 



the fight that Paul is waging here. It was not the question 
of a few churches in Asia Minor, but whether Christianity 
was to be a universal and spiritual religion or a Jewish sect. 
And our interest increases as we catch the earnestness and 
passion of the man, which make these words live for us 
despite nineteen centuries that lie between. The gospel that 
he preached and the churches that he had founded with toil 
and danger of life he now saw imperiled by men who dis- 
regarded the Jerusalem agreement and invaded his terri- 
tory. He throws every resource into this fight. Logic, 
Scripture, sarcasm, bitter denunciation, tender appeal — he 
uses them all in this effort. 

His enemies were not Jews but Judaizing Christians, 
bitterly opposed to Paul because he did not ask his converts 
to keep the law. Their argument seems to have been this: 
This man Paul is not a genuine apostle. The real pillar 
apostles are at Jerusalem, and they keep the law. Jesus is 
the Jewish Messiah, foretold in the Jewish Scriptures. You 
Gentiles may believe on him, but if you want the full gospel, 
if you want to be real sons of Abraham, you must keep the 
sacred law ; and, first of all, you must be circumcised. To 
this Paul makes reply in his letter, pouring forth a stream 
of passionate declaration and entreaty, with no concern 
for order or phrase. It falls, however, into three main 
parts. 

i. Paul's assertion of his independent apostleship: "My 
gospel did not come from men but from God, and there is 
no other gospel. I never took instruction or authority from 
the other apostles at Jerusalem. But they have recognized 
my apostleship to the Gentiles and have given me the hand 
of fellowship" (Chs. i and -2). 

2. "The Christian is saved by faith, not by the law : 
When you were converted you received the Spirit. It was 
the sign of your new life ; but you received it because you 
trusted, not because you had kept the law. Why not con- 
tinue the same way? The men of faith are the real sons of 



of sons 



GALATIA 205 

Abraham, not the men of the law. The law by itself means 
simply a curse, for it condemns every man unless he keeps 
every letter of it; and that no man can do. There is only 
one thing to do, to trust in the love of God as he comes in 
Jesus Christ. The Christian is not a servant keeping a law ; 
he is a son living with his Father. You are all sons of God, 
through faith in Christ Jesus. Do not let anyone make a 
slave of you again. The Christian life is not circumcision 
or uncircumcision ; it is faith working through love" (3. 1 
to 5. 12). 

3. The last part of Paul's letters is always given to The life 
practical advice. It is so here. He has said that Chris- 
tianity was not a sum of laws but a life of freedom and a 
new spirit, the spirit of sonship. That freedom, he declares, 
does not mean license. It is simply an inner life that we 
live, instead of a set of rules imposed from without. But 
we must live out that inner life, we must walk by the 
Spirit. "The fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, long- 
suffering, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, meekness, self- 
control" (5. 13 to 6. 18). 

Characteristic of this letter is its close. So possessed 
is Paul with the great question at issue that he comes back 
to it again. The last words, from 6. 11 on, were added 
by his own hand. The rest of the letter had been dictated, 
as was his custom. If the sickness to which he refers in this 
letter was a trouble with his eyes, it would explain his 
using an amanuensis, and making large letters when he 
himself wrote (6. 11). 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

Read Acts 13 and 14. 

Follow carefully upon the map the line of journey. Using the 
scale of miles make an estimate of the total distance traveled. 

Name in order the Galatian cities visited, and one or two inci- 
dents in connection with each. 

Give a brief outline of Paul's life as he reports it in Gal 1 
and 2. 



206 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



Give the outline of Paul's argument in the second section, Gal 
3. 1 to 5. 12, by means of five or ten key verses selected from this 
passage. 

In the last section, 5. 13 to 6. 18, select five or six individual 
verses which seem to you best to sum up Paul's idea of the Chris- 
tian life. 



CHAPTER XXXI 
MACEDONIA 

Macedonia forms the next stage in Paul's campaign. Macedonia 
Galatia was but one of a number of provinces in Asia 
Minor. The westernmost of these was called Asia, and 
held a number of cities besides its great center, Ephesus. 
But Luke tells us that Paul on his journey through Asia 
Minor felt himself under a definite guidance of the Spirit 
which led him past one district after another upon his way 
to Macedonia. 

Of the journey toward Macedonia we know little. After The 
Paul's return to Antioch from Galatia, he proposed to routeand 

' r r companions 

Barnabas that they start out to revisit the churches they 
had established. Barnabas was willing but wished to take 
John Mark along. Paul demurred to this, since Mark had 
failed them on the previous trip. So they parted company, 
Luke says, after "a sharp contention." Barnabas and Mark 
went to Cyprus. Paul started out with Silas. This time 
he went by land. First they visited the churches of his 
old field, Syria and Cilicia. From Tarsus they pressed 
on over the Taurus range to the little communities which 
he had just founded in Galatia, and which lay not far be- 
yond. x\t Derbe he secured another companion for his 
journey, Timothy, a convert of his previous visit, the loyal 
and affectionate companion and helper of his remaining 
journeys. 

So Paul came at last to Troas and to the Hellespont. The gospel 
Though he had felt himself under compulsion of the Spirit. 1°^° 
we need not assume that it was a blind leadership for Paul. 
He saw that his journey was tending to Europe. Mace- 
donia and Achaia were the Roman provinces into which 
the Grecian land was divided, and these now lay before 
207 



208 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

him. He was beginning a new period in his life. His 
labors till then had not led him far afield. Cilicia was the 
province of his native city Tarsus. Syria lay between Tar- 
sus and Jerusalem, no doubt often traversed by the young 
man on his way to Jerusalem and back. Cyprus could be 
seen in clear weather from Antioch. Derbe, in the east- 
ern end of Galatia, was not more than one hundred and fifty 
miles' journey from Tarsus. He had never gotten far 
from this little corner of the Mediterranean, near whose 
angle Tarsus and Antioch lay. Now he was facing not 
only new provinces but a new continent. He was be- 
ginning not only a new epoch in his life but a new epoch 
for Christianity. Born in the Orient, the new faith was to 
have its fullest expression in the West. Here it was to 
shape mighty organizations, to mold new institutions of 
government and society, and centuries later to start out 
again from this new center upon a conquest of the world. 
To-day the cradle of Christianity has little to show. The 
eastern lands of Syria, Asia Minor, and Egypt, where first 
she had her strength, now show either the rule of the Mos- 
lem or a Christianity of a distinctly inferior type. We 
cannot but ask the question: What if there had been no 
Paul with his companions to carry the new faith west- 
ward in that early day of its enthusiasm and power? 
The need Paul himself could make no such forecast of history. 

What did he think of as he looked out for the first time upon 
the famed TEgean Sea and upon the circle of historic lands 
that surrounded it? Did he think of Troy, but a few miles 
distant, immortalized by Homer's song? Or did he recall 
the time when East and West had met here in one of the 
crises of history, when Xerxes had marshaled his millions 
which the nobler, bolder life of the West had driven back 
again? Or did he think of Socrates and Plato and Aris- 
totle? Deeply as Paul realized the importance of the 
new step, it was not these thoughts that filled his mind. 
What he saw was a people whom all their art and phil- 



of the 
Greek also 



MACEDONIA 209 

osophy and noble history had not been able to save from 
superstition and moral degradation. He faced them, as 
later on toward Rome itself, his heart filled with the cour- 
age and enthusiasms of a great message, his spirit burdened 
with the sense of a high obligation. These lands of light 
needed exactly what the rude folks of Galatia did, whom 
he had just left behind. "I am debtor both to Greeks and 
to Barbarians, both to the wise and the foolish. So much 
as in me lies I am ready to preach the gospel to you 
also. . . . For I am not ashamed of the gospel: for it 
is the power of God unto salvation to every one that 
believeth; to the Jew first, and also to the Greek" (Rom 1. 
14-16). 

Such thoughts must have prepared him for the vision The vision 
that came by night, the man of Macedonia who stood be- and ** cal1 
fore him saying, "Come over and help us." The vision at 
least found him ready. At once he sought a ship for 
Macedonia, sailed from Troas by way of the island of 
Samothrace, and on the following day landed at Neapolis. 
It seems likely that Luke joined the little company at Troas, 
and some have held that he was the "man of Macedonia." 
In any case, we note that at this period there suddenly 
begin the so-called "we" portions of the book of Acts 
(Acts 16. 10). 

In various ways the Macedonian churches occupied a The 
special place in Paul's work. The people themselves were Macedonian 

. churches 

of a sturdier, simpler life than Paul found in such centers 
as Corinth and Ephesus. At the same time, though there 
was full share of hardship and danger, Paul's enemies, 
the Judaizers, seem largely to have left him alone in this 
field. There was a solidity about this work, and it grew 
without great disturbance or crisis. Above all, there was a 
closeness of personal relation between the churches and the 
apostle which does not appear elsewhere in such measure. 
Luke tells us of only three cities where Paul stopped 011 
this tour: Philippi, Thessalonica, and Berea. It was prob- 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



Paul's special 
relations 
to the 
Philippians 



ably on a later occasion that Paul pressed farther north 
and west to Illyricum. 

Philippi was Paul's first stopping place. Apparently, he 
arrived the first part of the week, and so was there some 
days before the Sabbath. The Jews, because they were 
few in number, had no synagogue here but only a place 
of prayer, whose location at the riverside was for con- 
venience in the matter of the ceremonial washings. Here 
the disciples met a number of women and opened conver- 
sation with them, and here Paul's first convert in Europe 
was won — Lydia, a seller of purple. Under the compulsion 
of her generous hospitality, Paul broke his rule, gave up 
his lodging and his work, and was entertained with his party 
in Lydia's house. So began the relation of special friend- 
ship which sets Philippi apart from Paul's other churches. 
This was the only church from which Paul took gifts. So 
sure was he of their friendship that he knew there would 
be no misunderstanding. They sent him gifts more than 
once during his stay at Thessalonica which followed; and 
a little later at Corinth they helped him again (Phil 4. 15, 
if>; 2 Cor 11. 8, 9). One of the last pictures that we have 
of Paul shows him a prisoner at Rome receiving Epaphro- 
ditus, a member of the Philippian church, who brings him 
again their love and their bounty ; and the letter which he 
writes them in acknowledgment is one of the most attract- 
ive of his epistles. There is little additional that we know 
of the Philippian church. Paul visited it later on several 
occasions. We know the names of some of its members. 
Lydia must have been a woman of some means to be able 
to entertain the disciples as well as have meetings of the 
church in her house. Besides her we know Epaphroditus, 
who brought the gifts to Rome ; Synzygus, whose name 
is translated "yokefellow," but whom Paul is probably ad- 
dressing as his "true Synzygos" with a play upon the name ; 
two women, Euodia and Syntyche; and Clement (Phil 2. 
25 5 4- i-3)- 



MACEDONIA 211 

To establish such close relations there must have been Paul and the 
a stay of some months. Luke, according - to his custom, *? r ° saying 
tells only of the beginning of the work and of the way in 
which it was brought to a close. The latter was not due 
to trouble from the Jews, but to a conflict with superstition 
and greed. There was a young woman in the city, a servant 
or slave, who had the power of ventriloquism. This, as 
we learn from Plutarch, was what was meant by calling a 
person a python, which is the Greek word used here. 
The people thought that the girl was demon-possessed and 
had the power of soothsaying. The girl herself was prob- 
ably unbalanced and thought the same. At any rate, her 
masters used her misfortune to make money. When Paul 
by his commanding word healed her, her masters found 
their source of profit gone and in revenge brought charges 
against the disciples. 

The charge was that of bringing in new and unlawful charges and 
customs, and probably referred to their teaching a religion 
that was not allowed. Philippi was a Roman colony with 
consequent special privileges, and was exceedingly proud of 
the fact. On such a serious charge Paul and Silas were 
sent by the inferior judges to the highest magistrates, who 
in a Roman colony were the praetors. These, without process 
of trial, and probably without even giving Paul the chance 
to assert his Roman citizenship, caused them to be beaten 
and flung into jail. Luke does not seem to have been with 
them at this time, the "we" portions ending just before 
this. He gives us, however, the graphic story of how the 
earthquake shook the prison and loosed the stocks in which 
Paul and Silas had been held, opening the prison doors, 
and of the jailor's attempted suicide and subsequent con- 
version. 

Meanwhile the praetors had had time to reflect upon Release and 
their summary and illegal action, and in the morning they 
sent the lictors to the jailor with word to let the prisoners 
go. But Paul knew too well what his right of citizenship 



imprisonment 



departure 



212 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

involved. The praetors had committed a double illegality: 
first, in proceeding without a trial; second, in beating a 
Roman citizen, who by special law would be exempt from 
such dishonoring punishment in any case. Rome had a 
long arm and a regard for law, as these officials well knew. 
So there was nothing for the proud praetors to do but 
themselves to come to the prison, upon Paul's demand, in 
person to lead out the prisoners, and to beseech the scorned 
Jews, whom they had but yesterday treated so contempt- 
uously, to leave the city. And so the disciples left; not in 
haste, however, for they first went to the home of Lydia, 
where a farewell meeting of the little church was arranged. 

From Philippi Paul goes to Thessalonica, passing by, for 
some reason not known to us, the cities of Amphipolis and 
Apollonia. Here there was a synagogue, and for three 
weeks Paul was permitted to speak each Sabbath to the 
Jews gathered there. After that he probably worked some 
time longer in the city among the Gentiles. Plis converts 
numbered only a few Jews, but included a large number 
of proselytes, "devout Greeks," as Luke calls them, and a 
number of "chief women." The mission was a notable 
triumph. Here again it was Judaism that prepared the soil 
for Paul, and we need not wonder that the Jews who did 
not believe were stirred to anger against him. He was 
winning away the Greeks who gathered about them, and 
so they resorted to active measures. Not wishing to appear 
alone, they succeeded in stirring up a rabble which pro- 
ceeded to the house of one Jason, where Paul and Silas 
lodged. Not finding these, they took Jason and some other 
disciples before the magistrates. Their charge was that 
the Christians proclaimed Jesus as king, which showed 
disloyalty to Caesar. The charge was dismissed, the magis- 
trates simply requiring Jason to give bond; but the dis- 
ciples felt that the danger was not past and so sent Paul and 
Silas away by night. 

Two letters written to the Thessalonians have been pre- 



MACEDONIA 213 

served for us. They are of greatest interest because they The oldest 
are probably the oldest writings that we possess from Paul's ^^e^" 1 
hand, as well as the oldest Christian writings of any kind. 
At this time the letter to the Galatians had not yet been 
penned, and the earliest of our Gospels was not written 
till at least fifteen years later. The first letter is so in- 
timate, so personal, so direct and practical, that it gives 
us a fine insight into the apostle's own spirit and the 
method of his work. All the circumstances add to the in- 
terest. Paul had left the Thessalonians suddenly, without 
even the chance for farewell as at Philippi. His stay with 
them had not been long. He had not had much time to 
instruct them in the new faith, and most of them were 
Gentiles. Moreover, they were even then facing persecution. 
And so these questions filled Paul's soul : Would they 
stand fast? Would they hold to the simple truth? Would 
they lead the life that belonged to the Christian faith? He 
had tried to return for a visit but failed. When he reached 
Athens he could endure it no longer, and sent Timothy 
back to them. He himself pushed on to Corinth, and to 
Corinth Timothy came at last. His news filled Paul's heart 
with joy. True, there were problems ; they could hardly 
be wanting in a church like this. But the church was stand- 
ing fast. Paul writes his letter at once, a letter full of joy, 
of tenderness as of a mother toward her children, and of 
appreciation of their faith and love and loyalty. Not all 
the narratives of Acts can give us the insight into Paul's 
heart that a single chapter here affords. 

More than half of the letter is taken up with personal Reminiscence 
reminiscence and suggestion, which is the more remark- 
able when we realize how anxious Paul was "to perfect that 
which was lacking in their faith." The opening words show 
the fine tact and courtesy which this man of deep passion 
and stern will could show. "I always thank God for you 
in my prayer," he begins, "remembering your faith and love 
and patience. The other churches in Macedonia and 



214 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



Instruction 
and advice 



Achaia have all heard of how the gospel came to you in 
power, of how you turned from idols to the living God, 
and how you have stood faithful. And you know what 
my life was with you. There was no flattery, no greed for 
money or honor. We came not to assert authority, but to 
love and serve. We were like a nurse with her babes, like 
a father with his children, loving you, working day and 
night, that we might not burden you, faithful in our teach- 
ing, unblameable in our lives. And you took our word 
not as man's word, but as God's word. And you proved 
your faith by suffering, just as your brethren in Judsea" 
(i Thess i. i to 2. 16). 

"We were deeply bereaved in leaving you, and I Paul tried 
more than once to come to you again. So we finally sent 
Timothy from Athens to encourage you. You remember 
that we had forewarned you of such trials. But when 
Timothy came just now with the good news, we were com- 
forted by your faith. For now we live, if you stand fast. 
You are our glory and our joy. How can we thank God 
for all the joy that we have in you? May God bring us 
to you again. May he make your hearts abound in love, 
and may he establish you in holiness until our Lord Jesus 
shall appear with the saints" (2. 17 to 3. 13). 

The second part of the letter, chs. 4 and 5, Paul de- 
votes to instruction and practical direction. He speaks 
first of the sin of social impurity, which the Greeks took 
so lightly : "God called us not in uncleanness, but in sanc- 
tification." Then he takes up the question of the second 
coming. This teaching had evidently stirred up great in- 
terest. Some were inclined to neglect their work: What 
need of toil if the end be so near? Paul admonishes these 
to be quiet, and attend to their business, and to work with 
their hands, that they may thus commend the new faith 
to those without. Others were concerned about their friends 
who might die in the interval before the end. Would they 
not be excluded from the Kingdom when Jesus came ? Paul 



faith 



MACEDONIA 215 

said no, for the dead in Christ were to rise first. Others 
were eagerly discussing the time of his coming. To these 
Paul says: "The time no one knows. It is enough for 
us to watch and be sober, trusting in him 'who died for us, 
that, whether we wake or sleep, we should live together 
with him.' " And then in short, strong words he crowds 
together the many things he would say to them: "Be at 
peace, admonish the disorderly, encourage the faint-hearted, 
support the weak, render to no one evil for evil, follow 
after that which is good, rejoice always, pray without ceas- 
ing, in everything give thanks." 

It is not hard to see why such a faith should spread, a conquering 
Here was the dynamic of a great enthusiasm, a spirit of faith, 
devotion, and brotherhood. And joined to this was a sober, 
earnest life with the noblest moral ideals. And these two 
things the Roman world needed — a living faith and moral 
power. What Paul did here he did everywhere : he showed 
that these were inseparable in the Christian faith. The 
second letter to the Thessalonians must have followed after 
a very brief interval, as it shows substantially the same 
situation. 

Berea, to which Paul went directly from Thessalonica, 
is the only other Macedonian church of which we know. 
Berea was a much smaller place, and it is likely that Paul 
stopped there in order to be near to Thessalonica, hoping 
to be able to return. Paul's stay could not have been very 
long, for the Thessalonian Jews could easily follow him. 
Here at Berea he had a larger success with the Jews. They 
were more open minded, and tested Paul's teaching of Jesus 
as the promised Messiah by a study of their Scriptures. As 
usual, Paul won converts from among the proselytes, both 
men and women. In all such cases it must be remembered 
that these were not necessarily close adherents, but that 
under this term we include many who were but loosely at- 
tached, though their minds had been prepared by some 
knowledge of the purer Jewish faith. 



2 if, NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

Read Acts 15. 36 to 17. 15. 

Read First Thessalonians. 

Note upon the map Paul's fields of labor up to this time and 
their location relative to Tarsus. 

Trace the route of Paul's journey to Macedonia; note the 
provinces in Asia Minor which he passed by; locate Philippi, Thes- 
salonica, and Berea. 

Write a synopsis of First Thessalonians, summing up each para- 
graph of the letter in a sentence or two. 



CHAPTER XXXII 
ACHAIA 

Berea was Paul's last stopping place in the northern Paul at 
province of Macedonia. He left it accompanied by some Athens 
of the newly won disciples, Silas and Timothy not being 
with him. Turning at first toward the sea, they went 
finally to Athens, and here, for a time at least, Paul seems 
to have been left alone. What stirred him most in this 
great city was not its far-famed works of art, whose 
broken fragments still move our wonder to-day, nor yet 
its traditions of a noble philosophy. Of that noble philos- 
ophy not much was left. The Epicureans whom Paul met, 
though they counseled moderation and virtue, found the 
meaning of life in pleasure. Stoicism was the self-centered 
philosophy of a few strong souls. It had no message of serv- 
ice to fellow men and no word of help from God. For the 
Athenians as a whole, however, these questions of truth or 
faith had become simply matters for fine speech and in- 
teresting debate. They "spent their time in nothing else, 
but either to tell or to hear some new thing." What 
moved this Jew of pure faith most was the scene of shrines 
and temples and statues, "the city full of idols." 

Here at Athens also there were Jews, and Paul met them The 
and "the devout persons," or proselytes, at the synagogue, speech*" 8 
Athens, however, gave him a freer opportunity to speak 
to the people. The central market place was where they 
were accustomed to congregate, and here the apostle spoke 
with all that would listen. Luke reports to us a special 
address that Paul gave. Scholars are not agreed whether 
the Areopagus was a hill to which Paul was taken, Mars' 
Hill, or whether it means a council, or court, which was to 
pass upon Paul's teaching. Probably it was the latter. 
217 



218 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The few words that Luke gives are at most a fragment 
or a summary. Cut even so they are very suggestive. With 
fine tact Paul finds a point of contact, the altar to the 
unknown God. He tells them of the God of all nature 
and all life, who is not shut up in temples. This brings 
him to his message of Jesus, through whom the word of 
righteousness and repentance comes now to men, and whom 
God has approved by his resurrection. 

The response What we have is really the introduction to Paul's true 
message. It may be that he was interrupted. In any case, 
Paul seems to have found no large response. A few con- 
verts are spoken of, but we learn nothing at this time or 
later of a church at Athens. There is no reason to be sur- 
prised at this. Paul's message demanded moral earnest- 
ness and humility. Jesus himself had set these as the gate- 
way to life in such passages as the Beatitudes : the meek 
were to inherit the earth, and those that hungered and 
thirsted after righteousness. To all this the Athenian 
spirit was in greatest contrast. 

Corinth From Athens Paul goes to Corinth. The way had not 

yet opened for him to go back to Thessalonica. It pointed 
clearly to Corinth, and yet Paul at the beginning seems to 
have contemplated only a brief stay in the great city. It 
was a special vision, such as that which called him to 
Macedonia, that now showed him that he was to remain 
a longer period in Achaia before going north again. 

Here at Corinth Paul was again at one of the centers 
of the empire. Antioch, Corinth, Ephesus were the great 
cities that he touched before he reached Rome. From 
Athens to Corinth was a brief journey, but a great change. 
Athens was the quiet city of culture, proud of its past, 
the university town. Corinth was the busy metropolis. 
It had been destroyed, had lain in ruins for a century, 
and been rebuilt but a hundred years before. The old pop- 
ulation was largely gone. It was a modern city. Roman 
colonists were here and Roman officials, for it was the 



ACHAIA 219 

capital of Achaia. It had its philosophers and rhetoricians, 
as well as Athens. It had a strategic position for trade, 
lying on the isthmus and commanding two harbors. Goods 
were commonly transhipped to avoid the dangerous journey 
around the coast. It was a great commercial center and 
had large wealth. Like all such cities of the time, it had 
its masses of the poor, vastly outnumbering all the rest. A 
writer somewhat earlier than this reports four hundred and 
sixty thousand slaves. It was upon such a pyramid of op- 
pression and wretchedness that the wealth of the great 
Roman cities rested. And that wealth brought in its train 
profligacy and vice. Corinth had even more than her share. 
Her very name had become a byword: men who led lives 
of indulgence and vice were said to Corinthianize. 

It was in a state of depression that Paul entered the Paul's mood 
city. His work in Macedonia had been broken off. He andme5Sa s e 
had not been able to get back to Thessalonica. He had 
had little result from his labor in Athens. "I was with 
you," he tells the Corinthians, "in weakness, and in fear, 
and in much trembling" (1 Cor 2. i>)- If he was stirred 
by the idolatry of Athens, he was deeply moved here by 
the shame and sin of the life about him. What could he do 
with his gospel of the cross, coming to these Greeks with 
their wisdom and their eloquence? And what could any 
gospel do with a city so sunken in sin? If such questions 
came to Paul in moments of depression, he had his answer. 
He may have distrusted himself, but he did not doubt his 
message. He could not compete with these Greeks in fine 
speaking; he had only what they would call the foolish- 
ness of the cross. But that message he would give simply, 
directly, "not in persuasive words of wisdom, but in demon- 
stration of the Spirit and of power." "I determined not to 
know anything among you, save Jesus Christ, and him 
crucified." 

The result justified the faith. What the fine rhetoric The gospel 
of the Corinthians could not do, or the philosophy of Athens. of powcr 



220 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

that his simple message accomplished. It seemed a mes- 
sage of weakness ; it was, in fact, a message of power. It 
seemed foolishness ; it had in it, in reality, the deep wisdom 
of God. Its great test was this, that it could meet the wick- 
edness even of Corinth, and overcome it. All this Paul 
brings in the letter which he writes later on to the Corin- 
thians. We understand his daring speech, his paradoxes, 
by remembering these circumstances. "For the word of 
the cross is to them that perish foolishness ; but unto us 
who are saved it is the power of God. Hath not God made 
foolish the wisdom of the world? Jews ask for signs, and 
Greeks seek after wisdom : but we preach Christ crucified, 
unto Jews a stumbling-block, and unto Gentiles foolishness ; 
but unto them that are called, both Jews and Greeks, Christ 
the power of God, and the wisdom of God" (i Cor I. 18-25 ; 
2. 1-5). Corinth showed Paul the power of the new faith 
over against the worst conditions of the old world. 

Paul's work began at Corinth much as elsewhere. He 
first sought a place in the Jewish quarter where he could 
carry on his trade. Here he found one Aquila with his 
wife, Priscilla. The emperor Claudius had driven the Jews 
from Rome but a short time before this, and these people 
had come from Rome to Corinth. Whether they were 
already Christians or not, we do not know. Paul's first 
reason for stopping with them was because they had the 
same trade. Gifts from Philippi supplemented what he 
thus earned. He did not win many of the Jews, for the 
church that we see later at Corinth was mainly Gentile. 
His work, when he left the synagogue, was carried on in the 
house of a proselyte who lived next to the synagogue, and the 
nearness probably helped to aggravate the anger of the Jews. 
Paul also won over Crispus, the ruler of the synagogue. With 
these he gained many converts among the Corinthians, and 
quickly established a strong church. 

The proconsul of the province at this time was Gallio, 
a brother of the noted Stoic philosopher Seneca. The hos- 



ACHAIA 221 

tility of the Jews culminated at last in an effort to convict 
Paul of serious charges before this Gallic It is prob- 
able that here, as elsewhere, they tried to make it appear 
that there was something politically dangerous in Paul. 
To Gallio it was a quarrel among the Jews, and he drove 
them out with scant patience. The Jews were never pop- 
ular. In this case their discomfiture emboldened some of 
the Corinthian bystanders, who improved the occasion by 
beating up Sosthenes, who had been elected ruler of the 
synagogue to succeed Crispus when the latter became 
Christian. 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

Read Acts 17. 13 to 18. 18. 

Write a paraphrase of Paul's speech at Athens. 

Read 1 Cor 1 and 2. 

Note what Paul has to say in praise and in criticism of the 
Corinthians in these two chapters. 

From what Paul says in these two chapters, try to determine 
what his style of preaching was, and the qualities which it possessed 
and which it lacked. 



in betweea 



CHAPTER XXXIII 
ASIA 

Asia One Roman province near at hand Paul had not yet 

touched, that of Asia. Paul uses this name always in the 
Roman sense, meaning the political province that occu- 
pied the western part of Asia Minor and included many 
cities hesides its populous capital, Ephesus. He had passed 
by this province on the way to Macedonia. He had estab- 
lished his churches in Galatia to the east and in Greece to 
the west. Now he turned to this his last Eastern field. 

journeys He did not, however, begin his work at once upon leav- 

ing Corinth. First he planned to go to Jerusalem and report 
to the apostles concerning his work. Ephesus was upon 
his way, and his friends Priscilla and Aquila accompanied 
him to that city. These remained in Ephesus, evidently 
locating for their business. Paul stopped long enough to 
speak in the synagogue and then pressed on, shipping from 
there to Csesarea, from which place he went overland to 
Jerusalem. On the way back he stopped with his old friends 
at Antioch also, but the stay at both places must have been 
brief. His real work lay in his new fields, where he had 
had such marvelous success. First of all, he was anxious 
to see his Galatian converts. It had been several years 
since he had left them. During that time his enemies had 
been busy. His letter, which we studied, had been written 
to them probably from Corinth and but a short time before 
this. Now he visits them again and for the last time. His 
road was probably through Tarsus, as when he visited 
them on the way to Macedonia. On that journey he moved 
north when he reached Pisidian Antioch. This time, when 
he left them, he went directly west toward Ephesus (Acts 
18. 18-23; 19. 1). 

222 



ASIA 223 

The work at Ephesus ranks in importance with that at scanty 
Corinth. Unfortunately, Paul has left us very little in- 
formation concerning it. The letter marked in our Bible 
"to the Ephesians" was probably not addressed to this 
church. As the margin of our American Standard Re- 
vision indicates, the oldest manuscripts omit the phrase 
"at Ephesus" from the first verse. In any case, the letter 
throws no light upon the church at all, and lacks wholly 
the local allusions, in which Paul's other letters abound. 
When we consider that Ephesus was Paul's headquarters 
for three years, the account in Acts is quite meager. The 
Corinthian letters were written during these three years, 
though not all from Ephesus, and gives us some important 
items. 

To these scanty sources some scholars have added an- As to 
other writing. They hold that the last chapter of our 
letter to the Romans has been added to this by mistake and 
is really a note which Paul addressed to the Ephesian 
church. The reasons for this can be readily seen. In this 
chapter is a long list of names of persons to whom Paul 
sends greetings. They are all known to him personally. 
Would he have known that many in Rome, where he had 
never been ? With all the ease of travel in the Roman world 
this would not be likely with the relatively small numbers 
of a Christian community. Three of these names, more- 
over, point naturally to Ephesus. The first two are Prisca 
(or Priscilla) and Aquila, who were with Paul in Ephe- 
sus. A third is Epaenetus, "the first fruits of Asia," that is, 
Paul's first convert in Asia, which with Paul means Ephesus. 

What we have here, then, in Rom 16 is a writing dif- a letter of 
ferent in character from any other writing of the New 
Testament. It is one of the "epistles of commendation" 
to which Paul refers in 2 Cor 3. 1. These were very common 
in the early church, especially a little later. Between the 
little Christian communities men and women were con- 
stantly passing back and forth. These disciples were cared 



224 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



Synagogue 
and the 
school of 
Tyrannus 



for by the brothers of the church wherever they went, and 
would not think of stopping at a public inn. Among them 
would be leaders of the church, including apostles and dis- 
ciples. The churches would help these on their way, as 
Paul expected help from the Roman church on the way to 
Spain. To prevent imposture, letters of commendation or 
introduction were written, and were either sent direct or 
given to the person whom they concerned, just as is done 
to-day. Paul's enemies in Corinth had probably brought 
such letters from Jerusalem. In a similar way Paul writes 
to commend Timothy and later on Titus to the Corinthian 
church, and letters from Ephesus paved the way for Apol- 
los when he went to Corinth (Acts 18. 27). Phcebe was a 
prominent member of the church at Cenchreae, one of the 
ports of Corinth. It may have been during Paul's last 
three months' visit at Corinth that she decided to go to 
Ephesus. Paul sends with her this letter of introduction. 
At the same time he takes opportunity to send greetings 
to his many friends there, naturally selecting those who 
were most prominent in the church or with whom he had 
close personal relations. Among the latter would be Rufus 
and his mother; Paul says, "his mother and mine." Prob- 
ably Paul had lodged with her and received her motherly 
care. This brief note, as we shall see, has not a few 
suggestions as to Ephesus. 

Paul sought his first opening at Ephesus, as usual, in 
the synagogue. For three months he used this as his place 
of teaching. He may have had some hope of winning the 
Jewish colony entire for the new faith. In any case, they 
gave him a ready hearing. Even at the end of this time 
he was not compelled to leave, and we hear nothing of 
open opposition from the Jews. In contrast with the situ- 
ation elsewhere, it seems that during this whole period the 
converts simply met in the synagogue. When, however, 
a portion of the Jews refused his message, Paul separated 
the disciples and used the school of Tyrannus for his 



ASIA 225 

teaching. This use of a public hall was also unique. It 
fits in with the general picture that we have of a great 
success on Paul's part in this field. 

Still another new feature in Paul's experience in Ephe- Apoiiosand 
sus was his meeting with certain men who had become t ^ ed ^* les 
Christians apparently without direct contact with either the 
Jerusalem teaching or his own. One of these was Apollos, 
whom Aquila and Priscilla had found and instructed in 
the Pauline gospel and sent on to Corinth before Paul 
arrived, but whom we find later there with Paul. Then 
there are twelve disciples whom Paul himself finds. These 
men, we are told, knew only the baptism of John. It 
seems probable that they knew of Jesus' life teaching; 
Apollos "taught accurately the things concerning Jesus." 
They did not, it would seem, know Paul's gospel — that 
Jesus died, that his death was for the sins of men, that 
he arose again, and that the new life of the Spirit was 
given to those who believed. They may have preached 
John's word of repentance and judgment, but not Paul's 
word of salvation by the grace of God. 

Apollos represents a new type that was to have great The Greek 
influence in the church. He stands for the Greek spirit, ^echurch 
with its eloquence, its rhetoric, and philosophy. In Alex- 
andria, whence he came, this spirit had entered the Jew- 
ish circles. We may think of Apollos' thought and style 
as being somewhat like that of the letter to the Hebrews, 
finding in the Old Testament all manner of types and 
suggestions of the gospel and setting this forth in beau- 
tiful language. No wonder that he was popular with the 
men of the Greek spirit at Corinth, though we of to-day 
would prefer the "rude" speech of Paul (Acts 18. 24-28). 
The Christian message, then, even if in imperfect form, had 
reached such widely separated places as Ephesus and Alex- 
andria apart from the work of Paul or the other apostles. 
It was spreading through the empire by many roads of 
which we know nothing to-day. 



226 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



Two early 
disciples 



Success at 
Ephesus 



Opposition 



One other line we trace, which leads apparently to Jeru- 
salem (Rom 16. 7). Paul speaks of Andronicus and Junias 
as fellow Jews, as men who had been in prison with him, 
as men who had been Christians before Paul was, and as 
apostles. These were probably of the original company 
of disciples at Jerusalem. They too may have represented 
Christianity in Ephesus before Paul. Now we find them 
working in hearty cooperation. 

All this suggests a picture of harmony and peace, as 
well as of great success. Paul gathers about him not only 
many converts but a fine group of workers. These carry 
the message throughout the province. Epaphras is one of 
these, who bore the gospel to Colossse, Laodicea, and Hier- 
apolis, cities to which Paul sends messages later. Paul 
mentions others as his "fellow workers" — Priscilla and 
Aquila, Urbanus, women like Tryphsena, Tryphosa, and 
Persis (Rom 16. 3, 9, 12). Luke declares that "all they 
that dwelt in Asia heard the word of the Lord, both Jews 
and Greeks" (Acts 19. 10). As an illustration of Paul's 
success, he tells how the people who had been convinced 
by his message brought their books of magic and burned 
them, just as we read a few years ago of the great bon- 
fires of pipes made by the Chinese who had given up opium. 
Luke declares that the value of these books was fifty thou- 
sand pieces of silver. What we gather from Paul's letters 
points to the same large results from the Ephesian labors. 
He declares that "a great door and effectual" was opened 
to him. Because of his labors he cannot at first go to 
Corinth himself. That he should stay three years at Ephe- 
sus is sufficient proof of the fruitful field that he found. 

But there are darker sides to the picture also. While 
we know little of detail, it is evident that Paul nowhere 
faced greater foes or was in greater personal danger than at 
Ephesus. It is not the Jews and their plots that trouble Paul 
here, for he seems to have met from these considerable 
response and little resistance. It is, rather, paganism and its 



ASIA 227 

business interests. The pride of Ephesus was its magnificent 
temple of Diana, or Artemis, whose foundations were some 
three hundred and thirty feet long, which was surrounded 
by a magnificent double row of columns, and boasted among 
its adornments the work of such artists as Praxiteles. The 
central treasure was the image of the goddess, supposed to 
have fallen from heaven. Certain strange characters in- 
scribed upon this image were held to have magic power. 
The religions of Asia Minor were on a very low plane, 
and Ephesus was a center of the immorality and super- 
stition. This had its profitable side. A big business was 
done in reproductions of the shrine, in copies of the magical 
characters found upon it, and in other magical books and 
articles. Paul's preaching had made inroads into this traffic. 
It was not merely a question of his converts, but of the 
popular influence he might exert as his teaching spread. 
Demetrius the silversmith, who organized the mass meet- 
ing in protest, may have been the head of his guild for 
that year. He and his friends secured the popular sup- 
port by the appeal to religious passion and prejudice and 
local pride. The local officials, however, seem to have 
been distinctly favorable to Paul's position, aside from fear- 
ing the results if such disorders should be reported to 
Rome. Paul, however, was in no personal danger in this 
case, the disciples and the local officials both persuading him 
to remain away. 

He himself reports far more serious dangers. He Personal 
gives us no definite statement as to what the perils dangers 
were, but it is evident that his very life was at stake, 
lie declares that Priscilla and Aquila "laid down their own 
necks" for his life (Rom 16. 4). He writes the Corinthians 
from Ephesus about standing in jeopardy every hour, and 
adds: "If after the manner of men I fought with beasts 
at Ephesus, what doth it profit me [that is, if the dead 
are not raised]?" 1 Cor 15. 30-32). Later he says. "We 
would not have you ignorant, brethren, concerning: our af- 



of the work 



228 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

fliction which befell us in Asia, that we were weighed down 
exceedingly, beyond our power, insomuch that we despaired 
even of life: yea, we ourselves have had the sentence of 
death within ourselves, that we should not trust in our- 
selves, but in God who raiseth the dead: who delivered us 
out of so great a death" (2 Cor 1. 8-10). It seems, then, 
that Paul's life was more than once in danger, and he may 
even have fought with the wild beasts in the arena. In 
any case, here was a ministry upon a larger scale both 
of success and of danger than had marked Paul's work 
before. 
The extent The Asian ministry thus marks another stage in Paul's 

career. His enemies declared that he had persuaded the 
people "not alone at Ephesus, but almost throughout all 
Asia." The interest of the Asiarchs, prominent provincial 
officials, showed that his influence had reached high quar- 
ters. Churches like those at Colossse, Laodicea, and Hier- 
apolis, founded by his helpers, looked to him as their apostle. 
The lower strata he reached also as in Corinth, for he 
refers to the slaves connected with two households, those of 
Aristobulus and Narcissus (Rom 16. 10, 11). As elsewhere, 
the church was divided into smaller groups which met in 
particular private houses. Thus Priscilla and Aquila had 
a "church in their house" (Rom 16. 3-5). When Paul 
speaks of "Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermes, Patrobas, Hermas, 
and the brethren that are with them," it is not unlikely that 
here too he is speaking of groups that met in different 
houses and mentioning the leaders of five such circles. In 
any case, it was a large and strong church that he left be- 
hind. It is interesting to note the number of women here 
mentioned, remembering that the list is not one of members 
but of leaders in the church and special friends. Here, 
as usual, Priscilla is named before her husband Aquila. 
However conservative Paul may have been in principle, 
in practice it is evident he gave generous recognition 
to the noble women of his churches, and these women 



ASIA 229 

played a large part in the church of the empire from the 
beginning. 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

Acts 18. 18-23; 19. 1. Trace Paul's journey from Corinth to 
Jerusalem and back to Ephesus. Note the former fields of labor 
through which he passes. 

Rom 16. Of those to whom Paul sends greetings here, which 
seem to be simply his personal friends? State the total number 
of names and the proportion of women. 

Acts 18. 24 to 19. 41. Tell the story of Demetrius and the mob. 
This theater had a seating capacity of about twenty-five thousand. 



Occasion 
of the 
Corinthian 
letters 



The moral 
problem of 
the early 
church 



CHAPTER XXXIV 
THE LIFE OF AN EARLY CHURCH— I 

Of no one of the early churches have we so full a knowl- 
edge as of the church at Corinth. We owe this to the 
preservation of the letters to this church which are 
contained in our New Testament. Paul was working at 
Ephesus soon after leaving Corinth. The two cities were 
joined by a great highway of the sea, with vessels con- 
stantly passing back and forth, and it was not hard for Paul 
to keep in touch with the church. Paul had received a 
letter from the Corinthians and had written one in return, 
both lost to us. A second letter was written him by the 
church, asking his judgment on various questions. About 
the same time Chloe, apparently a well-to-do Christian 
woman, sent some of her servants or slaves, also presumably 
Christians, and these informed Paul of serious conditions 
that had arisen in the life of the church. Later three other 
members of the church came, Stephanas, Fortunatus, and 
Achaiacus, the two last named being probably slaves of the 
first. Apollos too, who had been working at Corinth, came 
to Paul at Ephesus, and Paul, himself prevented from going 
by the importance of his new work at Ephesus, had sent 
Timothy as his personal representative. All this had taken 
place before Paul sat down to write the letter which we now 
have. It is a good instance of Paul's care of his churches 
and at the same time a picture of the freedom of travel 
which characterized the age. 

More important than these incidents is the picture of the 
life of a Christian church in the Roman world, and the 
problems which the Christian religion faced in thus estab- 
lishing itself. Christianity was a new way of living. Paul's 
first message to men concerned their relation to God : "We 
230 



THE LIFE OF AN EARLY CHURCH 231 

beseech you on behalf of Christ, be ye reconciled to God" 
(2 Cor 5. 20). But he did not stop with this. The new 
religion was a life to be lived out among men. It meant 
a new conduct and character. It was a moral revolution. 
"If any man is in Christ, he is a new creature: the old 
things are passed away; behold, they are become new" 
(2 Cor 5. 17). Paul's greatest task was to show his con- 
verts what this new life meant. The old religions had little 
to say about right living. Often their influence lay upon 
the wrong side. The temple of Aphrodite at Corinth, for 
example, had a thousand women attached to it who were 
giving themselves to a life of shame as part of the service 
of the goddess. The Corinthian converts had no trouble 
in accepting the new doctrines and sacraments, but it was 
not so easy to teach them that the new faith meant purity 
and sobriety and uprightness. Nor was that all. Paul had 
the further task of teaching them what the new spirit 
meant in the thousand and one activities and relations of 
life. These Christians had to live in the pagan world and 
touch its life on every side. The political life, the social 
life, the business life was pagan in spirit and practice. They 
could not leave this world; how should they live the new 
life in the midst of it? 

In all these matters Paul shows a marvelous patience. Paul's swu 
He knows he is dealing with children. They are still babes, 
and he does not expect everything at once. He is skillful 
too. He holds up the highest principles, but he shows the 
greatest tact and common sense in application. All fanatical 
extremes are absent. More wonderful still is his faith. He 
knows with what materials he has to deal in the Corinthian 
church. In writing them he mentions a long list of those 
who cannot enter the Kingdom of God — fornicators, idola- 
ters, adulterers, effeminate, abusers of themselves with men, 
thieves, covetous, drunkards, revilers, extortioners. And 
then he adds, "And such were some of you" ( 1 Cor 6. 9-1 1). 
Moreover, most of his converts were taken from the lower 



and faith 



232 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

social classes, from the great proletariat of Corinth. And 
yet before such folks Paul holds the highest ideals of Chris- 
tianity, nor abates from them one whit. It is for these 
people that he sets forth his lofty ideal in the marvelous 
chapter on love (i Cor 13). He believes that even such 
people can be made over in the spirit of Christ. 

The problems that appear in the Corinthian letters may 
be taken up under two heads: (1) Moral problems; (2) 
Problems of church life. We shall take these up in the order 
noted. 
Against The first problem that Paul had to handle was a pecul- 

impunty iarly distressing one. Apparently the servants of Chloe 

informed him of this, that a member of the church had 
actually married his stepmother upon his father's death. 
And the church had permitted this without proceeding 
against this member. That does not mean that they de- 
fended such a deed. Individually they may have condemned 
it, but Paul demands that this man must be put out of their 
fellowship. With such men they might have to associate 
in the world without, but the Christian fellowship had a 
different meaning (1 Cor 5. 1-13). Back of this lay the 
broader question, the general matter of social immorality. 
Here was the prevalent sin of the Grecian world, for which 
Corinth was especially notorious. Paul's warnings do not 
imply that this sin had appeared in the church, but it shows 
how great a task Christianity had that the apostle should 
deem it necessary to solemnly warn the church upon this 
subject. "Be not deceived. The unrighteous shall not in- 
herit the kingdom of God." It was an echo of the old 
prophetic message : Religion means righteousness. But Paul 
went further. The Christian was one who had received the 
Spirit of God. How could he dishonor the body in which 
that Spirit lived? "Know ye not that your body is a temple 
of the Holy Spirit which is in you, which ye have from 
God?" That was Christianity's first fight in the Roman 
world: it stood for purity of life (1 Cor 6. 9-20). 



marriage 



THE LIFE OF AN EARLY CHURCH 233 

Paul's next question took him into the business world. The gospel 
He found his Corinthian converts indulging in sharp busi- and busmess 
ness practices, defrauding each other, and going to law. 
Has Christianity anything to say as to business? Paul did 
not go into the question in detail. He had no such occasion 
for this as we have now. But he made clear the principle: 
Religion has something to say about business. Brotherhood 
must be taken into business life. Neither fraud nor un- 
righteousness nor extortion has any place in the kingdom 
of God (1 Cor 6. 1-11). 

Christianity had to meet the question of the family. The As to 
Corinthians had raised several questions as to marriage. 
There was an extreme party in the church, it appears, whose 
effort to be holy had carried them so far that they did not 
believe in marriage or in maintaining the relation of hus- 
band and wife. For them everything that had to do with 
the flesh was sinful. Paul denies this asceticism. Marriage 
is not sinful, though he feels that with the end so near at 
hand it would be better for Christians to remain unmarried, 
as he is. Others apparently thought that a Christian 
husband or wife whose partner was unconverted should 
take a divorce. This too Paul declares against (1 Cor 7. 
1-40). 

In the matter of womanhood Christianity also rendered The place 
a great service in setting up a new ideal. Social immorality 
in that day was widely prevalent, as we have seen. Divorce 
was common and on the increase. The father was not only 
the head of the household but the absolute master and ruler. 
Children and women had no rights. A woman had no 
standing before the law except as belonging to some man, 
father, husband, brother. In Greece education and freedom 
belonged only to the class of women called hctairce, who 
purchased these privileges with their honor. In some points 
Paul was still the conservative Jew : The head of the woman 
is the man, he says, and the woman is the glory of the man 
as the man is the image and glory of God (1 Cor 11. 3, 8, 



of child and 
woman 



234 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



Christianity 
and slavery 



As to meat 
offered to 
idols 



9). But Paul knows the deeper Christian truth — that every 
human personality is sacred : "There can be neither Jew nor 
Greek, there can be neither bond nor free, there can be no 
male and female; for ye all are one in Christ Jesus" (Gal 
3. 28). Here lies in principle that position toward which 
woman has been moving since that day. For the woman, 
as for the child and the slave, Christianity meant emancipa- 
tion. All were alike children of God, and the words 
"brother" and "sister" set them all upon the same 
plane. 

Slavery Paul touches upon with only a few words ( 1 Cor 
7. 20-24). He bids the slave remain contented in his posi- 
tion. Christianity was not a political movement. It would 
have had short shrift in the Roman world had it been such. 
But it had a message that concerned slavery. ( 1 ) The slave 
knew himself as Christian to be a free man: "He that was 
called in the Lord being a bondservant, is the Lord's freed- 
man." (2) Within the Christian Church the slave was a 
brother. The servants of Chloe and the slaves of Stephanas 
came to Paul not as mere letter-carriers, but as trusted 
Christian brothers. Within the church it was brother and 
sister, not master and servant. When Paul, later on, writes 
from Rome the charming letter to Philemon and sends back 
the runaway slave whom he has won to Christ, he sends him 
back "no longer as a servant [slave], but more than a 
servant, a brother beloved." It sometimes happened, indeed, 
in the early church that slaves held the highest office. (3) 
In these ideals Christianity set free the silent forces which 
were at last to make slavery impossible. 

Paul's discussion of the question of the eating of meat 
that had been sacrificed to heathen gods shows how difficult 
the situation of the Christian was in the midst of the life 
of a pagan world. When an animal was sacrificed it was 
customary, after certain portions had been given to the 
priests, to use the rest for a feast which might be held in 
the temple or at home. Sometimes the meat was offered 



THE LIFE OF AN EARLY CHURCH 235 

for sale in the market. To such feasts the Christians would 
be invited by their unbelieving friends, or they might un- 
wittingly buy such meat in the markets. Was it wrong to 
partake in either case? 

Paul does not answer with a simple yes or no. He is not Paul's 
giving rules; he is setting up principles of conduct. He answer 
discusses these questions in two passages here (1 Cor 8. 
1-13; 10. 14-33) an d i n Rom 14. He declares (1) that 
idols are nothing at all. The meat offered to idols cannot 
therefore be unclean. The Christian by his knowledge is 
lifted above these things. When you go into a market tc 
buy meat, therefore, or when you are at the table of a 
friend, you need not stop to inquire whether the meat offered 
you has been sacrificed to an idol. (2) But there is some- 
thing besides a man's own conscience, and that is his brother. 
There are Christians who have not gained this knowledge. 
To them eating meat that has been offered to idols seems 
like falling back into the old idol-worship; and your eating 
may lead them to do what would be against their own 
conscience and so injure them. In such case the brother is 
more important than the meat. The meat is a small matter. 
"The kingdom of God is not eating and drinking, but 
righteousness and peace and joy in the Holy Spirit." And 
your knowledge is not the most important thing. There is 
something greater than knowledge, and that is love. "Knowl- 
edge puffeth up, but love buildeth up." Therefore, says 
Paul, "If meat causeth my brother to stumble, I will eat 
no flesh for evermore, that I cause not my brother to 
stumble." (3) But while an idol is nothing at all, and meat 
offered to idols is not as such unclean, it is quite a different 
matter for Christians to participate in the old idol feasts. 
How should the Christian go from the Lord's Supper over 
to some pagan festival, as though by accepting Christ 
he had simply added another god and another feast? 
Flee idolatry, Paul says ; it is nothing but the worship of 
demons. 



236 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

As to social morality, read I Cor 5. 1-13; 6. 9-20. 
As to marriage, read 1 Cor 7. 1-40. 
As to slavery, read 1 Cor 7. 20-24. 

As to pagan feast and meat offered to idols, read 1 Cor 8. 1-13 ; 
10. 14-33; Rom 14. 



CHAPTER XXXV 
THE LIFE OF AN EARLY CHURCH— II 

The second class of problems that Paul met at Corinth Problems of 
were those that concerned the common church life. The thechurch 
new religion was not simply an individual life but a life in 
fellowship. Upon that fellowship Paul laid the greatest 
stress. In fighting the enemies of this fellowship he knew 
that he was fighting for Christianity itself. The Roman 
world of that day, like our own world, was strongly indi- 
vidualistic. The old bonds were breaking and men were 
seeking the life of individual freedom. That was especially 
true of the Greeks. Like our own age, they were inclined 
to underestimate religion as a social fact and Christianity 
as a fellowship. This fellowship Paul saw assailed by 
several dangers. 

There was the trouble that came from the "advanced" As to 
women of the congregation (i Cor n. 2-16; 14. 33-36). women 
They had heard from Paul that Christianity meant not the 
bondage of rules but the freedom of the spirit. Why should 
they, then, submit to the old restrictions upon women, such 
as that which required them to wear a veil in public and 
forbade them taking part in open meetings? The question 
was, in fact, the same as that with the progressives who 
felt they could eat meat offered to idols. It was a purely 
individualistic point of view, which thought only of the 
individual conscience and liberty. What these women failed 
to consider was the effect upon others and upon the church 
as a whole. There was only one class of Corinthian women 
which appeared unveiled upon the street and spoke in public, 
and that was the hetairce. For Christian women to do this 
meant not only to shock some of their Christian friends, 
237 



238 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

but to bring suspicion upon the Christian community. As 
a matter of fact, the Christians were often slandered simply 
because they were a mingled company of men and women 
meeting in private. Paul's argument, indeed, is not one 
that would appeal to us to-day. He argues more as a Jewish 
rabbi than as a Christian apostle. But his practical con- 
clusion is both sane and Christian. The only mistake has 
been to try to make a permanent law for the church out of 
his practical counsel to the Corinthians. 
Church The same individualism appears in the troubles in con- 

suppers and nection with the church suppers. It was apparently the 

the Lord's _ . . . " . , „ , . 

supper common Christian practice to meet in a fellowship supper, 

just as has been noted at Jerusalem. As a part of this 
supper or in connection with it, there was a memorial of 
the Last Supper of the Lord with his disciples, what we 
call the Lord's Supper, or the Holy Communion. There 
were probably prayers offered and at a given time such 
words were repeated as Paul gives here (i Cor II. 24, 25), 
and bread and wine were passed to all present. The Cor- 
inthian church was made up mostly of the poor. It had, 
however, some people of means. Some of these brought to 
these suppers their rich and abundant foods and wines, and 
feasted by themselves while the poor brethren looked on 
hungry and envious. They were simply turning the whole 
into such a pagan feast as they had long been accustomed 
to. It was pure selfish individualism without thought of 
the idea of fellowship or the feelings of their poor brethren. 
'This is not a mere feast," Paul says ; "it is a supper with 
deep and solemn meaning. It is proclaiming the Lord's 
death; think of that and of your brethren. If you are 
hungry, eat at home" (1 Cor 11. 17-34)- 
as to The quarrel about "spiritual gifts" was simply another 

g^ tual manifestation of the same spirit, joined to a certain pride 

and love of display which was characteristically Greek 
(1 Cor 12 and 14). In Paul's teaching, as with the Jeru- 
salem apostles, the gift of the Spirit to believers was the 



THE LIFE OF AN EARLY CHURCH 239 

great fact of the new life. Their religion was not simply 
a hope of what Jesus would do upon his second appearing ; 
it was a great possession realized in this life. This gift 
was the source of that spirit which marked so strongly the 
early church, its joy amid all persecution, its peace and love 
and hope, and its inextinguishable enthusiasm. The pos- 
session of this Spirit manifested itself in different gifts, or 
forms of Christian activity and usefulness. Prophecy and 
speaking with tongues were two forms of these gifts which 
attracted especial attention in the Corinthian church. 
Prophecy was not prediction, but a form of earnest speech 
or exhortation upon spiritual themes to which' the speaker 
felt himself driven as by a kind of inspiration. The speaking 
with tongues, as we have seen, was a kind of rapt, ecstatic 
utterance of an incoherent kind, whose meaning was under- 
stood neither by speaker nor listener. 

Here was a great power in the early church ; but here was The danger 
also the possibility of serious danger. The enthusiasm 
might easily lead to fanaticism and disorder, and the spiritual 
gifts to spiritual pride. The test of true religion with 
Jesus was obedient trust in God and the loving service of 
men. In the new atmosphere these simple homely qualities 
were in danger of being lost. These conditions actually 
existed in the Corinthian church. Nothing shows Paul's 
sanity and moral insight better than the way in which he 
faced them. 

The Corinthians, it seems, were very proud of their gifts, pride and 
especially of the speaking with tongues. To order and disorder 
reverence they paid no attention in their meetings, nor did 
they care whether their prophesying and speaking with 
tongues was of any help to others. Each man thought that 
it was of first importance when he felt moved by the Spirit 
to make himself heard. Nor did one wait upon the other. 
Two or three of the men with tongues would be speaking 
their strange medley at the same time. It is easy to imagine 
what visitors thought when they came in, especially when 



2 4 o NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

they saw women taking part in these disorders. With all 
this there was naturally a good deal of pride and conten- 
tion. 
Paul's Here, again, Paul does not simply give commands. He 

principles sets U p g re at Christian principles, (i) True Christian gifts 
have their source in one Spirit, the Spirit of God. There 
should, therefore, be no conflict and no question of distinc- 
tion of greater and less. Rather there should be perfect 
unity. The church is the body of Christ. As the body has 
different members — feet, hands, and the like — so the church 
needs different gifts. But all belong together and each 
must seek to serve the whole, not to live for himself. We 
are members one of another. (2) The purpose of the gifts 
is service. The test of their value is the good they do. 
This test shows the gift of tongues to be of very little value. 
The man himself may enjoy it, but it does not help others, 
since they do not understand; and it injures the church, 
since any visitors hearing it simply say, "These people are 
mad." But if these people hear a prophet (that is, a preacher 
or exhorter), then the truth strikes home to their con- 
science, and they declare, "God is among you indeed." (3) 
The final principle Paul illustrates in the thirteenth chapter, 
one of the most beautiful writings in all Christian literature. 
He calls it the most excellent way, the gift that is above all 
the other gifts of the Spirit, the spirit of love. For the 
Corinthians the presence of the Spirit meant the strange 
utterance and the striking accomplishment. For Paul it 
meant moral character and life, and these he sums up in 
the word which Jesus used, love. All your showy gifts, he 
declares, and all the knowledge of which you are so proud, 
is worth nothing without this spirit of love. And this love 
is very different from the spirit you have shown. It is 
patient and kindly ; it has no jealousy or pride ; it is modest 
and humble, full of hope and of faith in men. And when 
all your tongues and prophecies are done away, this love will 
last (1 Cor 13). 



THE LIFE OF AN EARLY CHURCH 241 

The last question that Paul takes up is that of the resur- The 
rection. He had learned that some among the Corinthians resurrecbon 
were casting doubt upon the idea of a resurrection from the 
dead. To the Greek mind it seemed absurd to talk of the 
body being raised again when it had wasted away in the 
earth. Here was the Greek spirit at work again, logical, 
critical, speculative, setting up a philosophy of its own in 
the place of Christianity. The issue for Paul was not a 
matter of one form of doctrine as against another. It was 
Christianity itself as a historical fact that was at stake: 
was there a living Christ, and had God really come to men 
in him? He brings forth three considerations. (1) What 
I have preached to you, the Christ who died and rose again, 
is the faith of the whole church, of the first disciples and 
all. "Whether then it be I or they, so we preach, and so 
ye believed" (1 Cor 15. 1-11). (2) We need not be 
troubled about the physical body that decays or how it shall 
be raised. It is not the natural body that is raised but a 
spiritual body, such as it will please God to give (15. 35- 
49)- (3) Without this hope we have nothing. If there 
be no resurrection, then there is no living Christ. And if 
there be no living Christ, then our faith is empty. But now 
the faith is ours with its glorious hope. "Death is swallowed 
up in victory. O death, where is thy victory? O death, 
where is thy sting? Thanks be to God, who giveth us the 
victory through our Lord Jesus Christ" (15. 12-19, 2 9S 2 > 
50-58). 

Such were the dangers that confronted the early church Christianity's 
from without and within: persecution of enemies, the con- P roblemsand 
stant environment of a debased life with which they still 
had to associate, the pull of the old habits, the peril of 
fanaticism, and the great gulf between the lofty Christian 
principles and these folks taken out of the lowest classes of 
paganism. Why did not Christianity fail? Because it had 
forces greater than all these. Deeper than the jealousy and 
strife was the new spirit of brotherhood and love that bound 



242 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The question 
of Second 
Corinthians 



The four 
letters 



them together. Stronger than the lure of old evil in the 
world about or in their own hearts was the purifying and 
transforming power of the new Spirit. And not the least 
part of the answer to the question is the leadership of such 
a man as Paul, whose marvelous religious experience and 
power was joined to such wisdom in practical leadership. 

We have little knowledge of the later history of the Corin- 
thian church. The second letter, as we have it, is very 
hard to understand. The first nine chapters are very 
different from the last four. The former are full of a spirit 
of kindliness and confidence and suggest a perfect reconcilia- 
tion between Paul and the church. The last four chapters 
take us into an atmosphere of strain and strife, where Paul 
is fighting for his apostleship. It seems probable that in 
later years, when Paul's writings were collected, two or 
three letters were joined together here. At that later time 
men did not care about the history of the church, but simply 
to have Paul's words. 

Following out this idea, scholars have suggested that we 
probably have four letters from Paul represented in our 
two epistles. They would divide them as follows : 

i. The first letter: 2 Cor 6. 14 to 7. 1. This is con- 
sidered a fragment of the first letter that Paul wrote, it 
being his answer to a question from the church as to their 
relation to unbelievers as indicated in 1 Cor 5. 9-13. Note 
how these verses interrupt the order of thought ; 7. 2 fol- 
lows naturally upon 6. 13. 

2. The second letter : our First Corinthians. As we have 
seen, this was written in answer to further questions from 
the church and because of information that Paul had re- 
ceived from messengers. 

3. The third letter: 2 Cor 10 to 13. The Corinthians 
had not followed Paul's directions. Timothy had failed in 
his visit. The strife of the parties had continued and Paul's 
Judaizing enemies had come in and attacked his authority 
and his apostleship. Even when Paul visited them person- 



THE LIFE OF AN EARLY CHURCH 243 

ally from Ephesus he had met opposition, and from one man 
at least even insult. This third letter is Paul's defense and 
assertion of his authority. It is an impassioned appeal, and 
should be placed beside his letter to the Galatians. He 
appeals to his labors, exceeding those of all others (11. 16- 
33). He points to his experiences (12. 1-6). He calls to 
witness the wonderful work he had done among them 
(12. 11-13). He denounces his enemies in the sharpest 
terms (11. 13-15). He declares that he will come a third 
time to them, and that then he will not spare (13. 1-10). 

4. The fourth letter : 2 Cor 1 to 9, omitting the fragment 
of six verses marked above as the first letter. It seems that 
Paul had made his third visit, that his enemies gave way, 
that the church punished the offender referred to in 1 Cor 5, 
and the old relations were established. The echo of the 
past controversies, and the deep feelings they had stirred, 
may still be heard in these fine chapters ; but the letter itself 
is full of Paul's usual spirit of joy and peace and confidence, 
with expressions of deep and tender affection. It has also 
some of his most beautiful expressions concerning his gospel 
and his ministry: "It is God, that said, Light shall shine 
out of darkness, who shined in our hearts, to give the light 
of the knowledge of the glory of God in the face of Jesus 
Christ" (2 Cor 4. 6). "Now the Lord [that is, Jesus] is the 
Spirit : and where the Spirit of the Lord is, there is liberty. 
But we all, with unveiled face beholding as in a mirror the 
glory of the Lord, are transformed into the same image from 
glory to glory, even as from the Lord the Spirit" (3. 17, 18). 
"God was in Christ reconciling the world unto himself" 
(5. 19). "And he died for all, that they that live should no 
longer live unto themselves, but unto him who for their 
sakes died and rose again" (5. 15). 

Paul's work at Corinth was not in vain. The Corinthians The later 
formed one of the strongest, if not the strongest Pauline 
church. One of the earliest Christian writings that we have 
outside the New Testament is a letter written to the Corin- 



church at 
Corinth 



244 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

thians about fifty years after the founding of the church by 
one Clemens, writing for the church at Rome. Clemens 
speaks of the church in highest terms: "Who ever dwelt 
even for a short time among you, and did not find your 
faith to be as fruitful of virtue as it was firmly established? 
Who did not admire the sobriety and moderation of your 
godliness in Christ? And who did not rejoice over your 
perfect and well-grounded knowledge?" From his refer- 
ences it appears that Paul's name was held in highest esteem 
and his letters read in the church. 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

As to the position and conduct of women, read i Cor II. 2-16; 
14- 33-36. 

As to the Lord's Supper and the church fellowship meals, read 
1 Cor n. 17-34. 

As to spiritual gifts and the disorders in the church services, 
read I Cor 12, 13, and 14. 

As to the resurrection, read 1 Cor 15. 

Read the four chapter letter, 2 Cor 10 to 13 ; select from these 
chapters all that concerns Paul's life, experience, and person, and 
write this out in an ordered statement. 

Read through the last letter, 2 Cor 1 to 9 ; select five or six verses 
aside from those quoted in this chapter, which reflect Paul's con- 
ception of his ministry and of the gospel. 



CHAPTER XXXVI 

PAUL AS PASTOR AND CHURCH ORGANIZER 

Paul was no mere wandering preacher moving from place The 
to place, making a few converts and then passing on. Rather p * stor . and 

r ° r o administrator 

he was a great religious statesman; his aim was to plant 
Christianity throughout the empire. To this end he moves 
from province to province: Syria, Cilicia, Galatia, Mace- 
donia, Achaia, Asia. For this reason he enters upon the 
great cities; we can mark the steps of his work by their 
names: Damascus, Tarsus, Antioch, Corinth, Ephesus, 
Rome. For this reason too we find Paul keeping his churches 
under most careful supervision. Paul is a great pastor and 
administrator. Acts shows us the preacher; the letters 
reveal the pastor. They give us a most lifelike picture of 
Paul's watchful care of his churches and of the constant 
thought and labor which this involved. Letters are passing 
back and forth; messengers are being received; one and 
another of Paul's helpers are sent on special missions; or 
Paul himself is planning to revisit the old fields. A single 
church like that at Corinth received at least four letters 
and three visits from Paul himself, besides sending letters 
and messengers again and again and being visited by Titus 
and Timothy. 

There is no finer aspect to Paul's character than his The pastoral 
pastoral spirit. Here, as so often, we must stop and marvel spmt 
at the many-sidedness of the man. This great statesman 
founding an empire, this missionary of restless zeal, this 
profound thinker whose ideas have shaped the Christian 
thought of centuries, was at the same time the thoughtful 
pastor and friend, bearing upon his heart the care of all 
the little communities that he had established. His glowing 
words on love are no mere rhetoric (i Cor 13). This love 
245 



246 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

is the mainspring of his own life. The moving catalog of 
his hardships and sufferings he ends with these words: 
"Besides those things that are without, there is that which 
presseth upon me daily, anxiety for all the churches. Who 
is weak, and I am not weak ? who is caused to stumble, and 
I burn not?" (2 Cor II. 28, 29). The same spirit appears 
in another passage: "For though I was free from all men, 
I brought myself under bondage to all, that I might gain 
the more. And to the Jews I became a Jew, that I might 
gain the Jews; to them that are without law, as without 
law, . . . that I might gain them that are without law. 
I am become all things to all men, that I may by all means 
save some" (1 Cor 9. 19-22). Nothing reveals this spirit 
better, or shows the real Paul more clearly, than the words 
in which he bares his heart to the Thessalonians (1 Thess 
2. 5-12). 
Tact and Next to the spirit of love, we must admire Paul's tact 

kindliness anc j ki n( ]ij ness in his relation to his churches. Paul under- 
stood "the gentle art of praising." He knows how effective 
praise is in the training of men. All his letters begin with 
words of generous recognition. "I thank my God upon all 
my remembrance of you," he writes the Philippians, "always 
in every supplication of mine on behalf of you all making 
my supplication with joy, for your fellowship in furtherance 
of the gospel from the first day until now" (Phil 1. 3-5). 
Even with the Corinthians, despite all he has to correct, he 
finds ground for such appreciation : "I thank God always 
concerning you, for the grace of God which was given you 
in Christ Jesus ; that in everything ye were enriched in him, 
in all utterance and all knowledge ; so that ye come behind in 
no gift" (1 Cor 1. 4-7). The same tact and skill is shown 
in the way in which he handles the matter of the collection 
for the poor at Jerusalem (2 Cor 8 and 9). He holds up 
the Macedonian churches to stir up emulation. He reminds 
the Corinthians that they had really been the leaders in 
this and praises their progress in other graces. He appeals 



PAUL AS PASTOR 247 

to the example of Jesus, to their love for him, to the praise 
he has given them before others. But nowhere does he 
rebuke them for their slowness after their first start, or 
issue a blunt command. 

To this tact and kindliness Paul adds courage and in- courage 
sight. He never draws back from any needed rebuke, and msight 
whether the quarrelsomeness of his dear Philippian friends 
(Phil 4. 1, 2) or the disorders and immorality of the Corin- 
thians. And yet he is too wise to indulge in mere rebuke. 
Like Jesus, he penetrates to the spirit that is back of the 
fault and then sets up the principle of the higher life. He 
confronts the quarrelsome Philippians with his great appeal : 
"Have this mind in you, which was also in Christ Jesus" 
(Phil 2. 5-1 1 ). Before the immoral Corinthians he holds 
up the great spiritual principle: "Your body is a temple of 
the Holy Spirit which is in you, and ye are not your own" 
(1 Cor 6. 19, 20). 

There is one other great service which Paul rendered The church 
besides this personal oversight, and that was the organiza- orgamzer 
tion of his churches. Christianity was more than a new 
faith implanted in the hearts of so many men and women. 
It was a new fellowship, a society which bound its members 
together with the closest ties. And these people were joined 
not simply locally in scattered communities ; they were one 
in a growing brotherhood that stretched throughout the 
empire, a brotherhood of such strength that it stood firm 
when the storms of later years swept the empire itself from 
its foundations. There are three questions to be asked 
concerning this work of Paul. How were the local Chris- 
tian communities organized by him? How were these 
scattered communities related to each other? And what 
was the relation of the Pauline churches to the other Chris- 
tian communities, especially the churches under the Jeru- 
salem apostles? 

What strikes us first in reading Paul's letters is that so Little 
little is said about organization or officers. No doubt this organization 



248 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

-7 is partly due to the fact that Paul felt that the present age 
was to last but a short time. The more important reason, 
however, lay in Paul's thought of the church. The church 
for him was not a matter of officials and organization; it 
was a fellowship in the Spirit. It was the Spirit that was 
the life of the church and that gave it guidance. 
Many gifts. This Spirit belonged to all Christians as such. There was 

one spirit n0 higher or lower among them, for one Spirit filled them 
all. This same Spirit, however, showed itself in different 
manner with different people, fitting them for different 
forms of service. "Now there are diversities of gifts, but 
the same Spirit. And there are diversities of ministrations, 
and the same Lord. ... To one is given through the Spirit 
the word of wisdom ; and to another the word of knowledge, 
according to the same Spirit ; to another faith, in the same 
Spirit; and to another gifts of healings, in the one Spirit; 
and to another workings of miracles ; and to another 
prophecy ; and to another discernings of spirits ; to another 
divers kinds of tongues ; and to another the interpretations 
of tongues. God hath set some in the church, first apostles, 
secondly prophets, thirdly teachers, then miracles, then gifts 
of healings, helps, governments, divers kinds of tongues" 
(i Cor 12. 4-10, 28). 
Overseers In this long list we have the various kinds of activities 

represented in the Corinthian church. The apostles stand 
first, men specially commissioned to preach the gospel 
throughout the whole church. The prophets are the inspired 
preachers. The teachers are those who have the task of 
instruction, probably explaining the Old Testament in its 
Christian meaning and applying Christian truths to daily 
conduct. The speaking with tongues has already been con- 
sidered. In the midst of this list occurs the word "govern- 
ments" (1 Cor 12. 28). It probably refers to those who 
directed the temporal affairs of the little Christian com- 
munity. Even in the simplest community, some one was 
needed to provide the place of meeting, to arrange for the 



PAUL AS PASTOR 249 

care of visiting apostles or prophets or other brethren, to 
collect and distribute the money for the poor, and attend to 
similar duties. Stephanas was such a man, of whom Paul 
writes, "I beseech you, brethren (ye know the house of 
Stephanas, that it is the first fruits of Achaia, and that they 
have set themselves to minister unto the saints), that ye 
also be in subjection unto such, and to every one that 
helpeth in the work and laboreth" (1 Cor 16. 15, 16). In 
Cenchrese it was a woman, Phoebe, who performed this 
service (Rom 16. 1, 2). In a larger community there would 
be several such. These are meant by the "overseers" men- 
tioned in Phil 1. 1, translated "bishops" in our version. 
There is little doubt that in Paul's usage of the terms these 
are the same as the presbyters, or elders. This work would 
naturally fall to people of means and liberal spirit, such as 
those in whose houses the little groups of disciples gathered, 
or to the older disciples. 

If we consider all these passages, certain interesting facts Their place 
stand out. (1) These officers are for Paul not so much «"* =>«*=** 
people of authority as people who serve. It is the service, 
not the authority, that Paul emphasizes with Stephanas. 
That is, Paul's test here as with every gift is, "To each one 
is given the manifestation of the Spirit to profit withal." 
It is the service of the church, and not authority over the 
church, that Paul is concerned with. He is expressing here 
simply the principle of Jesus: "If any man would be first, 
he shall be last of all, and servant of all" (Mark 9. 35). 
(2) These offices, like all others, are gifts of the Spirit. 
God helps one man to prophesy, he helps another to serve 
the church in these practical affairs. (3) These men are not 
placed above others in the church. In direct contrast with 
the later thought of the church, these overseers, or bishops, 
seem to have been placed pretty well down in the list. In 
Corinth, at least, the church seems to have thought more 
of the gifts of prophecy and of tongues. Paul finds it 
necessary here and elsewhere to exhort the church to appro- 



250 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



Increasing 
importance 



Early 
democracy 



ciation of the service of these men and to a proper respect 
for them. It was natural that the people should think more 
of the spiritual gifts than of these everyday affairs with 
which the overseers, or bishops, concerned themselves. 

As the church grew the work of these men increased in 
importance. The supervision of the poor funds, the pro- 
vision for place of meeting, for the common meals, and 
other church matters added to their influence. The other 
gifts were matters of individual endowment and would 
change ; these men formed a permanent body. Other duties 
would naturally be added, such as the supervision of the 
worship and matters of church discipline. Meanwhile, as 
the church at Corinth shows, the gifts of prophecy and of 
tongues might easily lead to excesses and even fraud. After 
Paul's day conflict arose between the men who appealed to 
their inspiration by the Spirit and the regular officials, and 
the church decided for the officials. 

Paul's day was still one of freedom and spontaneity. The 
life of the local church was democratic. The picture of the 
worship in the Corinthian church shows that any one might 
take part as he felt moved by the Spirit. More significant 
is the fact that when matters are to be decided Paul calls 
upon the church as a whole. It is to the congregation as a 
whole that he addresses his letters and arguments and 
appeals. Nowhere does he ask any officer or body of offi- 
cials to take any action or pass any decision. Furthermore, 
Paul himself does not decide for the church. It is true, he 
is an apostle and these are his churches, the children whom 
he has begotten in toil and pain. He argues and appeals, 
he praises and censures, he sometimes makes demands ; 
but he never comes forward simply with command and the 
assertion of authority. They are a church of God and the 
Spirit of God is in them. When Paul has a word of Jesus 
to quote, then that is final (i Cor 7. 10). He distinguishes 
carefully between this and his own authority ( 1 Cor 7. 12, 
25, 40). As for the authority of any central church council 



PAUL AS PASTOR 251 

or other body, that is nowhere so much as suggested. 
Neither the church at Jerusalem nor the twelve apostles have 
any right of rule in Paul's churches. 

What, then, was the relation between the scattered com- The Spirit 
munities ? Were they simply so many individual congrega- and J hurch 
tions ? On the contrary, no man of his generation seems to 
have had so clear an idea of the unity of the church or laid 
such stress upon it as Paul. It is the doctrine of the Spirit 
again which gives the answer. The churches are one in a 
real sense, not because of officers placed over them or a 
central authority which unites them, but because they have 
one spirit which is their life and which unites them in the 
one body of Christ. 

This spirit of unity Paul seeks to further in every possible Paul's 
manner. He knows no Christian life that is not a life in ^f,^!* 

in unity 

the Christian fellowship. He seeks to promote that fellow- 
ship in every possible way, and first of all within the single 
Christian community. His letters abound in exhortations 
to kindliness and patience and mutual helpfulness and serv- 
ice, and no man has ever so glorified the spirit of love and 
fraternal loyalty. He seeks to promote the same spirit 
among the churches, that they may all be united in one 
fellowship. His collection for the Jerusalem church is the 
great evidence of this desire. The space which this occupies 
in his letters shows how much pains he gave himself in 
this. And no opposition of the Judaizing brethren from 
Jerusalem ever made him swerve from this self-assumed 
task. 

The constant travel of Christians was the most important Practical 
practical means of securing this unity among the scattered J^/ed™ 
brotherhoods. First among these were the twelve and the its value 
other apostles. Two of these he found in Ephesus (Rom 
16. 7). We know little of the work of the twelve, but it 
seems that others besides Peter traveled about the church 
(1 Cor 9. 5). The prophets too went from church to church. 
But more important still were the travels of disciples of 



252 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

the rank and file. Such were Priscilla and Aquila, whose 
names we find connected in turn with Pontus, Rome, Cor- 
inth, and Ephesus. One of their moves was due to perse- 
cution suffered as Jews; the others were presumably for 
reasons of business. Such traveling and visiting kept alive 
the sense of brotherhood and of a vital unity. The Chris- 
tians knew what was happening to their brethren all through 
the empire. Paul tells the Thessalonians that their faith 
is known not only in Macedonia and Achaia, but in every 
place. He informs the Corinthians that the Macedonians 
know of their first collections for Jerusalem. To the Romans 
he writes that their "faith is proclaimed throughout the 
whole world" (Rom I. 8). By such mutual acquaintance 
and interest the bond of brotherhood became very definite 
and very strong. Nothing added more to the power and 
attractiveness of the new religion than this spirit of fra- 
ternity, both in the local church and throughout the empire. 
The new disciple found himself at once received into a 
community that was more of a family than a mere organiza- 
tion. On the first day of the week they met for worship in 
which each might have a part. During the week they 
sat down at common meals. When one disciple was in 
need, the love, the sympathy, and the material help of the 
whole brotherhood were behind him. And he soon realized 
that the little fellowship of his own city was part of a greater 
fellowship that embraced the Roman realm. Rome itself 
began at last to take notice, not so much of Christianity's 
creed, as of the power of this great fraternity. 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

Note Paul's qualities as a pastor as revealed in I Thess 2. 5-12. 

Select two good illustrations of Paul's praise of his churches. 
In what letter does Paul omit this praise from the introduction? 

Read 2 Cor 8 and 9 and make a list of the different motives to 
which Paul here appeals. 

Read 1 Cor 12. 4-10, 28; Eph 4. 11, 12; Phil 1. 1; Acts 14. 23. 

Make a list of the gifts, or offices, mentioned in these passages. 



PAUL AS PASTOR 253 

Which of these are represented in the accounts of the Jerusalem 
church? 

What significance, if any, is there in the fact that no two of 
these lists agree? Does it suggest the absence of fixed forms of 
church life and organization? 



CHAPTER XXXVII 



PAUL THE LETTER-WRITER 



Importance of 
the letters 






All due 
to special 
occasions 



A study of the New Testament shows that about one 
fourth of its contents are assigned to the apostle Paul. The 
influence of these writings has been in even greater pro- 
portion. The writings of no other Christian man can be 
set beside those of Paul in this regard. The great leaders 
of Christian thought, like Augustine and Calvin, have always 
looked to him. In the great religious movements within 
the church, like those led by Luther and Wesley, it is 
Paul's message that has been revived. There is not a city 
where Paul founded Christianity that could be called a great 
Christian center to-day ; but these letters, directed to these 
churches, have been a ferment for Christian thought and a 
guide for Christian life through all these years ; nor do they 
show signs of diminishing power to-day. If the test of 
inspiration be the power to inspire men, then these writings 
must be placed among the first of all writings wrought by 
the Spirit of God. 

Probably no one dreamed less of such a future for these 
writings than Paul himself. A distant posterity was farthest 
from his mind when he wrote. Certainly he had no thought 
that his letters would ever be included in a new collection 
of sacred writings to be placed side by side with the Sacred 
Scriptures of his people. He never thought of his words 
as being on the same plane with the Old Testament or the 
words of Jesus. Neither did Paul ever think of his letters 
as words of literature or treatises on theology. Paul's writ- 
ings all had a special occasion for their composition in some 
practical need. They were simply a part of his missionary 
work. Paul was not theologian and not author; he was 
254 



PAUL THE LETTER-WRITER 255 

just apostle and missionary. These letters are all connected 
with a definite situation. Now he writes to thank the 
Philippians for their gifts, or to send his love to the Thessa- 
lonians and encourage them in their persecutions. Now it 
is to answer questions that the Corinthians have sent him, 
or to call the Galatians back from their errors. Usually, he 
has more than one purpose. But always there is a definite 
end, and the letters move on toward this and in earnest and 
practical fashion. 

If we ask why these letters have lived, they themselves why the 
will give us the answer. It is not due to any claim that lettersUv 
Paul made for them or any theory of inspiration that his 
churches held about them. It is due to what the letters are - 
in themselves. They are the noblest expression of that 
Spirit of God which Paul and his disciples believed was 
working in their midst. It is true that Paul is treating 
matters that are local and questions that were often tem- 
porary. We are not troubled to-day about meats offered 
to idols, nor are we divided about the question of keeping 
the Jewish law. But these passing questions were all 
considered by Paul in the light of great Christian principles. 
We do not need Paul's discussion as to whether a Christian 
may eat such meats, but we need his great principle still: 
Knowledge puffeth up, but love buildeth up. The Jewish 
law is behind us, but we have not yet caught up with Paul's 
great truth, that life is a spirit lived out in freedom and not 
a matter of rule and routine. And as in matters of conduct, 
so in matters of faith : the varying needs of each one of 
these little brotherhoods is only another occasion for Paul 
to set forth in new form the eternal truths of his gospel. 
Paul himself was not unconscious of what he was offering. 
He sees the larger company behind those whom he is im- 
mediately addressing. He directs this letter not to one 
church, but to a whole province (2 Cor 1. 1). He arranges 
to have his letters passed on from church to church, or 
exchanged among them (Col 4. 16). 



556 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



How 

written 



The usual 
arrangement 



Paul's letters were dictated (Rom 16. 22; Gal 6. 11 ; 1 Cor 
16. 21). This may have been due to trouble with his eyes, or 
to the fact that his hands roughened with work were not 
adapted to the pen, or simply that he let another write for 
him while he plied his tent-maker's needle. The habit, in 
any case, explains some qualities in Paul's style. They have 
a certain lack of literary finish, but there are a directness 
and vigor and vividness that more than compensate for this. 
We hear Paul speaking as we read. His arguments are 
often dramatic. He sets his opponents before him and 
questions them. He breaks out in impassioned utterance. 
Sometimes he begins sentences without completing them, 
as though he had been interrupted in his dictation. To be 
fully appreciated, these letters should be read aloud, or 
recited. 

While Paul follows no rule, most of his letters fall natur- 
ally into three parts, aside from the salutation. (1) The 
introductions are used by Paul to establish relations with 
his readers. They are models of Christian courtesy and tact 
and skill. Here is the letter to the Romans. Paul is paving 
the way for a later visit. He begins with an appreciation 
of their faith, which "is proclaimed throughout the whole 
world." 1 Ic tells them how he has long since wished to see 
them, and has been prevented. Pie wants to preach his 
gospel to them also, to "impart some spiritual gift." And 
then, lest he might seem to assume too much, he hastens to 
make the service mutual: he is to comfort them and they 
are to comfort him (Rom 1. 8-15). In these modest, friendly, 
appreciative words Paul strikes just the right note for the 
letter to a church upon which he had no claim as founder. 
(2) The doctrinal part comes second. It is never abstract 
or general, but always a discussion of Christian truth in 
relation to the particular needs of a given church. (3) The 
practical exhortations come last. They form the finest body 
of ethical teachings and practical maxims to be found in 
Christian literature. Thev are Paul's answer to the im- 



PAUL THE LETTER- WRITER 257 

portant questions as to the meaning of the new faith for 
the relations of daily life. 

Though the letters almost all have these three elements Differences in 
of the personal, the doctrinal, and the practical, yet Paul 
follows no fixed rule in writing. Each letter, indeed, stands 
by itself and reveals a new aspect of this great man. Some 
are written to churches which he does not personally know 
and so are less personal and more objective, as well as more 
doctrinal: such are Romans, Colossians, and Ephesians. 
Some are mainly practical and ethical, like First Corinthians. 
Two are letters of controversy and self-defense — Galatians 
and what we have called Third Corinthians, that is, 2 Cor 
10 to 13. These are full of passionate appeal, of argument 
and denunciation. And, finally, there are the more intimate 
personal letters: First Thessalonians, written to the little 
company of Christians which he had been compelled to 
leave so suddenly but a few months before; Philippians, 
the letter of friendship to his most loyal church ; and Phile- 
mon, the only letter preserved which Paul wrote to a 
private individual. The last two may be taken for closer 
study as examples of Paul's art as a letter-writer. 

Paul's letter to the Philippians is the great friendship The friend- 
letter of the New Testament. With no church did Paul shi P letter 
have so close a relation. Here he had accepted private 
entertainment from Lydia contrary to his rule. And they 
formed an exception also in the gifts which they sent him 
again and again. He had revisited them twice and no doubt 
had written them as well, but these earlier letters are lost. 
At the time of this letter Paul had reached Rome as a 
prisoner. The Philippian friends had learned of his situa- 
tion and had sent one of their number, Epaphroditus, to 
bring him money and to help care for him. Epaphroditus 
had fallen seriously ill at Rome. He was recovered now, 
but was homesick, and Paul prepares to send him back. 
He plans also to send Timothy to them a little later, as soon 
as he knows how his trial is coming out. Meanwhile he 



258 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



Outline of 
Philippians 
Personal 



A message 



Warnings 



writes this letter, Paul's love letter some German scholars 
have called it. He tells them of his affection, of his need, 
of his appreciation. And yet he is still the faithful mis- 
sionary and pastor, who tells them frankly of their needs 
at the same time. We may outline the epistle as follows : 

i. Introduction and personal items: In my every 
prayer I thank God for you, remembering your help. May 
God make your love abound more and more and add to it 
wisdom. My imprisonment has been really an opportunity. 
It has given me the chance to preach to all the soldiers of 
the pretorian guard and it has encouraged others. I do 
not know what the end of my trial will be, whether life or 
death. I do not even know which I wish for myself. I 
should like to go and be with Christ, but I am ready to stay 
here and serve (i. 1-26). 

2. An exhortation : Live worthily of the gospel of Christ, 
undisturbed by persecutions. And complete my joy by 
giving up all divisions and jealousies and pride. Instead 
of such selfish quarrelings, let each show in his life the 
spirit that Jesus showed. He left his high estate and became 
a servant of men, though that service led him even to death. 
That is why God has exalted him and why every knee is to 
bow before him. Work out your salvation with fear and 
trembling. Live the pure life despite the sin that is about 
you (1. 27 to 2. 18). 

3. A message: I expect to send Timothy to you in a 
little while. I am hoping to come to you myself before long. 
It seemed necessary to send back Epaphroditus now. Honor 
him for his work (2. 19-30). 

4. Some warnings : Beware of those Judaizers who teach 
that you must be circumcised and keep the law. If the law 
were worth anything, I should have been saved. No one 
can boast purer Hebrew blood or stricter obedience than I. 
But when I found Christ, these things were mere refuse to 
me. Now I have only one purpose — to gain the life that 
is in him. Like the runner I have only one goal ; I press on 



PAUL THE LETTER- WRITER 259 

to lay hold of that for which Jesus once laid hold of me. 
Beware also of those who say we are delivered from all 
law, whose only law is self-indulgence. We are citizens of 
heaven; we must not follow things of earth (3. 1-21). 

5. Further exhortations: Stand fast. Let Euodia and Final 
Syntyche agree. Live in joy and in trust, and God's peace exhortatlons 
shall keep you. Whatever is good, note and follow; and 

what I have stood for, that do (4. 1-9). 

6. Thanksgiving: I rejoice in your gift to me; you have a message; 
not had the chance for some time to send to me. For myself 

I do not complain; I can do all things in God's strength. 
You are the only church that has ever thus served me. And 
all your needs shall be supplied from God's riches as they 
are in Christ (4. 10-23). 

The letter to Philemon stands alone in the New Testament. Letter to 
It shows the value placed upon Paul's words from the first 
that such a letter should have been preserved, for it is purely 
personal and has no discussion of doctrine or declarations 
as to moral principles. It is probably from the same period 
as Philippians. Paul is a prisoner at Rome. As that letter 
shows us, Paul was free to preach not only to the soldiers 
of his guard but to any who might visit his rooms. Men 
called the Rome of that day the sewer into which all the 
empire emptied its filth. Then, as now, the big city was a 
better hiding place for the runaway than was the desert. 
Among Paul's hearers one day was a runaway slave, such Arunawav 

. . . slave 

a man as might loiter idly on the edge of a Salvation Army 
street meeting in our time. Some word of Paul's gospel 
reached this man. He became a disciple. Very naturally, 
he told his story and confessed his fault. Then it appeared 
that this slave belonged to an old friend of Paul, one, indeed, 
who had been converted by the apostle, a certain Philemon 
who lived in Colossae, and who was probably won by Paul 
while the latter was at Ephesus. Philemon was well to do. 
He not only had servants but was able to entertain. Paul 
writes asking him to have lodgings ready for him, for he 



2 6o NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

was evidently expecting to be released and to travel to 
Macedonia and Asia, rhilemon was not only a Christian 
but had been an active helper of Paul. Archippus, to whom 
Paul twice refers, may have been his son (Col 4. 17). 
Apphia was probably his wife. The letter suggests a Chris- 
tian home of the best type. 

a unique Under the circumstances Paul writes this brief epistle. 

letter This charming letter, playful yet serious, appealing as a 

friend when he might have demanded as an apostle, honor- 
ing the friendship by his confident request, pathetically 
referring to himself as "being such a one as Paul the aged, 
and now a prisoner also of Christ Jesus," the next moment 
punning upon the name of the slave — this letter is not out- 
ranked by any letter of friendship in literature, and at the 
same time throws still further light upon this many-sided 
man. 

The appeal "I thank my God always for you," Paul writes, "remem- 

bering your faith and your service to the church. I might 
come with a command ; instead I am bringing a request 
for friendship's sake on behalf of this convert of mine, your 
slave Useful (that is, Onesimus). So far, indeed, he has 
been Useless to you ; now, however, he is useful to both 
you and me. I should have liked to keep him, but I wanted 
your goodness to be free and not of compulsion. And this 
may be why he left you as a slave — that he might return 
as a brother. If you count me a partner, receive him as you 
would myself. If you have lost anything by him, charge 
that to my account. I know you will do even more than I 
ask. Prepare a lodging for me, for I hope to come to you 
soon." 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

Read and compare the introductions to First Corinthians, Colos- 
sians, and First Thessalonians. What is common to them? Why 
should that of First Thessalonians be longer? 

Read carefully Philippians and note its intimate and personal 
character. Make a list of the passages in which Paul sets forth 



for a slave 



PAUL THE LETTER-WRITER 261 

his personal faith and purpose. Write an account of Paul's rela- 
tions with the Philippians on the basis of Acts 16. 11-40; 2 Cor 
11. 8, 9; and Philippians. Select eight or ten passages from Philip- 
pians which reveal his personal regard for this church. 

Read Philemon. Does Paul expect Philemon to set Onesimus 
free? What bearing has the Christian religion had upon the 
problem of slavery? 



CHAPTER XXXVIII 
PAUL THE PRISONER 



Last visit to 
Macedonia 
and Corinth 



The collection 



The seven great years of Paul's work were drawing to a 
close. Long before this Paul had fixed his eye upon Rome 
and the West. It was about this time that he wrote to Rome 
and told them of his plans : He had fully preached the gos- 
pel from Jerusalem and round about even to Illyricum. 
Now he was planning for Rome and Spain. To Rome, 
indeed, Paul was to come, but only as a prisoner. 

Luke tells us that Paul left Ephesus after the tumult 
which Demetrius had stirred up. His missionary work in 
these regions was finished, but there were two reasons why 
he could not go at once to Rome. In the first place, he 
wished to revisit the churches in Macedonia and Greece. 
It was about this time that affairs at Corinth had reached 
a crisis. Timothy's visit had been followed by Paul's. Paul 
had written again (2 Cor 10 to 13). He had sent Titus 
and was anxiously awaiting word from him. Now he pre- 
pares to go to Corinth himself by way of Macedonia. 
Troas is his first stop, but he has not heard from Titus 
and so goes on to Macedonia to meet him. There he hears 
good news at last and writes his last letter to the Corin- 
thians (2 Cor 1 to 9). The letter did not reach Corinth 
very much before Paul. 

Paul's second reason for delay was the collection that 
he was making for the Jerusalem church. This was one 
reason for his visit to the Macedonian churches. With all 
his insistence upon his independent authority as an apostle 
and the truth of his gospel, Paul never once surrendered 
his ideal of the church as one body of Christ and one fel- 
lowship. Under his direction the churches had been gath- 
ering these offerings for some time. Now the money was 
262 



PAUL THE PRISONER 263 

all to be brought together and taken to Jerusalem. The 
big offering was to be Paul's proof of loyalty, and Paul 
looked forward to it as the means that should cement the 
Gentile churches and the Jewish churches together. And 
yet Paul was not wholly sure of the issue. He knew the 
element in Judsea that had sought almost everywhere to 
block his work, that had attacked him by every possible 
means both in his gospel and in his person. These men 
would oppose him when he returned ; how would the church 
as a whole stand? He knew too that he would be in dan- 
ger from the Jews. How deeply concerned he was is seen 
from his letter to the Romans written at this time: "I be- 
seech you, brethren, by our Lord Jesus Christ, and by the 
love of the Spirit, that ye strive together with me in your 
prayers to God for me ; that I may be delivered from them 
that are disobedient in Judsea, and that my ministration 
which I have for Jerusalem may be acceptable to the saints" 
(Rom 15. 30, 31). 

Paul had intended to sail directly from Corinth to Syria. The company 
A plot laid against him by the Jews compelled him to leave 
earlier than he intended. He had apparently fixed the 
date when he wished to arrive in Jerusalem, and now he 
uses the extra time at his disposal and returns through 
Macedonia. At Troas he is joined by those who are to 
accompany him to Jerusalem, and the group that starts 
for Jerusalem numbers at least nine. Luke was probably 
with Paul, and in addition there were seven representatives 
of the churches whose offerings were being taken. From 
Macedonia there came Sopater of the Berean church, and 
Aristarchus and Secundus of Thessalonica. Gaius of Derbe 
and Timothy of Lystra represented Galatia, while from 
Ephesus there came Tychicus and Trophimus (Acts 20. 4). 
These men were to be the living testimony to Paul's work 
which he could show to the Jud?ean Christians. But Paul's 
chief desire for their presence was that he might prevent 
all possible criticism as if he were profiting by these col- 



264 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



Warnings 
of danger 



Meetings 
by the way 



lections. These men were themselves to bear the funds. 
They were witnesses to Paul's disinterestedness. 

As the journey to Jerusalem proceeded, Paul received 
repeated warnings of the danger to which he was exposing 
himself. Everywhere that Paul had labored his attitude 
against the law was known by the Jews. It was not a case 
of Judaizing Christians, but of the hostility of the Jews 
themselves. Paul had asserted that Jesus was the end 
of the law to those that believed. His mission had every- 
where been in competition with the Jews. They had seen 
him lead away their best adherents and sympathizers among 
the Gentiles, the people who had given the synagogue stand- 
ing and support. They were his bitter enemies. Restrained 
elsewhere by Roman authority, would they not here in 
Judaea wreak their vengeance upon him? Some of these 
men would be at Jerusalem, for the city always held large 
numbers of Jews of the dispersion returning for a longer 
or shorter stay. In any case, his work had long since been 
reported. Characteristic was the warning which Paul re- 
ceived when the party landed at Gesarea. Here a Christian 
prophet from Judaea took Paul's girdle and bound the hands 
and feet of the apostle. It was his symbolic way of declar- 
ing the captivity that awaited Paul. 

The story of this journey as given by Luke shows also 
that Paul's deep affection for his churches was returned 
by them. We read of the meeting at Troas, from which 
place the company started, and how Paul spoke till mid- 
night and then till morning. It was their last time to- 
gether and they found it hard to part. At Miletus he meets 
the Ephesian elders. "And they all wept sore, and fell 
on Paul's neck and kissed him." At Caesarea they pleaded 
with Paul not to go on to Jerusalem. His answer shows 
the mutual affection: "What do ye, weeping and breaking 
my heart?" But all this could not move Paul from his 
purpose: "I am ready not to be bound only, but also to 
die at Jerusalem for the name of the Lord Jesus." 



PAUL THE PREACHER 265 



From Csesarea Paul went up to Jerusalem, his little with the 

Jerusah 
church 



company being increased by some members of the Cesa- 
rean church and by one Mnason, a native of Cyprus and 
an early convert, who was to be Paul's host in the city. 
To the assembled church Paul reported his work. He 
had not seen them for three years. He told them of the 
establishment of the work in Ephesus, of its spread through- 
out Asia, and of its continued development in Macedonia 
and Achaia. Then his associates handed over their gifts. 
It must have been a large offering. It had been two years 
in the gathering. Much of it had come out of the poverty 
of its donors. The apostle, who would not take a penny 
for himself, had given constant care and effort to this. 
Would the Jerusalem church accept it in like spirit ? Would 
the gift with his story of the work make them feel that 
his churches were really one with them? And would they 
overlook their scruples on the one hand and overrule the 
little group that had been making him so much trouble by 
their attack? 

Paul was doomed to a measure of disappointment. They The request 
received him kindly and they praised God for the progress ofthechurch 
of the gospel, but they could not forget their concern for 
the law. James, the brother of Jesus, seems now to have 
become the recognized head of the church. No one else 
is mentioned beside him. It is a striking fact that the 
two leaders who now faced each other, James and Paul, 
were neither of them of the twelve. James stood for rever- 
ence for the law. The church had become more conserva- 
tive. The Jewish leaders now saw no cause for persecution. 
Many thousands of the Jews had joined the new faith, 
which did not mean to them any separation from the old. 
And so the leaders made a request of Paul. What troubled 
them was not the reception of the Gentiles, nor even that 
Paul had not required the law of these. "The report is 
around," they said, "that you tell the Jews that are con- 
verted that they do not need to keep the law. We have 



266 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The tumult 
in the temple 



Addresses to 
people and 
Sanhedrin 



something to propose that will show that you keep the 
law as a faithful Jew. Here are four poor men who have 
just completed their term of the Nazirite vow. Do you 
now join them, shaving your head and paying for their 
offerings." Paul has been criticised for entering upon this 
plan. He had certainly not been walking "orderly, keep- 
ing the law." And yet this accommodation to the prejudices 
or weakness of others was in line with his practice all 
these years; he had been a Jew to the Jews, and to those 
without the law as without law. 

It was this decision, however, that brought on the crisis. 
Following the old law in this case (Num 6. 13-20), Paul had 
gone into the temple. Certain Jews, who had known him 
in Ephesus, had seen him a few days before in company 
with Trophimus of Ephesus, a Gentile and one of those who 
had come with the offering. Evidently, they had recog- 
nized Trophimus also. Now, seeing Paul in the temple, 
they concluded at once that he had taken Trophimus also 
into the sacred place. It was an offense punishable by 
death, and they would have inflicted the penalty at the 
time had not the Roman guards rescued him. It was not 
simply hatred of Paul that was involved here. Most of 
the mob probably knew no more than that some one was 
charged with desecrating the holy place. But that was 
enough. The sanctity of the temple was more to them 
than life, and the experience of the last years with the 
Romans had kept their fear of desecration alive and their 
passions aflame. The captain himself could make nothing 
of the tumult. Only one man was cool; that was Paul. 
It was not the first time he had faced an angry mob, or 
even death. He was not thinking of safety now. He asked 
of the Roman captain permission to speak, and before the 
angry mob he undertook a defense of his life and his 
faith. 

It speaks eloquently of the courage and commanding 
power of the man that he could win a hearing at such a 



PAUL THE PRISONER 267 

moment, but one need not wonder that his words did not 
help his case with the excited crowd, or that they did not 
listen long. They heard him while he told of his conver- 
sion. It was not the reference to Jesus as the Messiah that 
brought the speech to an abrupt end, but the mention of 
the Gentiles. At that all the excitement broke loose again. 
The captain, seeing that no light was to be gotten here, 
carried off his prisoner and prepared to scourge him. It 
was the brutal method used in some cases to secure a con- 
fession. With a Roman citizen, however, it was never 
permitted, and Paul's declaration of his citizenship stopped 
the proceeding. The captain made a final attempt to get 
light upon the matter the next day by calling a meeting 
of the Sanhedrin and setting Paul before it. This too ended 
in a tumult. They were in no mood to give such a man 
a hearing, and Paul soon saw this. Luke reports that he 
divided the enemy by his declaration that the trouble arose 
because he believed in the resurrection, thus setting the 
Pharisees of the council against the Sadducees ; the ground 
for such a declaration would be his preaching of the resur- 
rection of Christ. 

In this way Paul's imprisonment began. It was per- in prison 
haps the most trying period of his life. Dangers Paul 
did not fear, nor even the threat of death. He had long 
since given himself up to his Master for life or death. 
It was from prison that he wrote, "For me to live is 
Christ, and to die is gain." But this was neither life nor 
death. Beyond the sea were his churches still needing 
his guidance. To the west were fields that he had planned 
to reach. But he must remain for five years a prisoner, 
held by the bitterness of his foes on the one hand, on the 
other by the weakness, selfishness, or indifference of his 
judges. 

A plot against Paul's life, which his nephew brought to Before Fc 
the captain, caused his immediate transference out of Jew- 
ish territory to the safer confines of Csesarea, the official 



268 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



residence of the procurator. Thus Paul retraced his jour- 
ney of a few days before. The procurator at this time 
was Antonius Felix, a man who had once been a slave. 
Cruel and incompetent, the historian Tacitus declares that 
he kept the temper of a slave while wielding kingly power. 
I Iere Paul's enemies from Jerusalem, led by the high priest 
Ananias, brought their charges against him, having engaged 
as advocate one Tertullus, apparently a Roman. They 
charged him with stirring up insurrection, with profaning 
the temple, and with being a ringleader of the new sect of 
the Nazarenes. Paul admits the last, though denying any 
wrong in it. The two first he challenges them to prove. 
Felix simply postponed the case. He held Paul, however, 
as a prisoner with a double motive, Luke says — desiring to 
placate the Jews, with whom he had had trouble enough, 
and hoping for money from Paul. Apparently, he was not 
unkindly disposed toward Paul. The latter had consid- 
erable liberty, his friends were permitted access to him, 
and Felix himself called Paul to him more than once. 
Before Festus After two years Felix was succeeded by Festus. The 
first visit which the latter made in his province was to 
Jerusalem. This was his chief city and the chief problem 
of his administration. To the demand of the Jews that 
Paul should be sent to Jerusalem for trial, Festus replied 
that he would try him in Csesarea. So there was another 
trial at Csesarea which established as little against Paul as 
the first. Instead, however, of setting Paul free, Festus 
now proposed to agree to the request of the Jews and take 
the case to Jerusalem. And so at length Paul made use of 
his privilege as a Roman citizen and demanded that he 
be tried at the imperial court at Rome. 

Luke tells us of two other speeches that Paul made dur- 
ing this time. The first was before Felix and his wife 
Drusilla, the other was after the coming of Festus on the 
occasion of a visit from Agrippa and his sister Bernice. 
Drusilla, Agrippa, and Bernice were children of Agrippa I 



Speeches 
before Felix 
and Agrippa 



PAUL THE PRISONER 269 

and great-grandchildren of Herod the Great, the last two 
especially of notorious immorality. It was significant of 
Paul that he should be willing to speak to them, that he 
should reason of "righteousness, and self-control, and judg- 
ment to come," and that his defense before Agrippa should 
become a sermon on repentance and faith in Christ. Paul 
could forget his own safety and everything else in the one 
passion of his life — the preaching of his gospel. 

The journey to Rome was destined to prove a long one. The voyage 
We have a vivid and detailed account of it, which gives toRome 
us a better picture of sea travel in that day than any 
other writing that has come down to us. We owe this 
to the fact that Luke was Paul's companion. Aristarchus 
of Thessalonica was also with him. There were a number 
of other prisoners, which presupposes a good company of 
soldiers by way of guard. The centurion in charge was 
named Julius. It was not possible to get a ship direct to 
Italy, and so a coasting vessel was taken which would 
take them to a port from which they could transship for the 
longer voyage. This latter was done at Myra, a port on 
the southern coast of Asia Minor, where they found one of 
the many vessels that plied between Alexandria and Italy 
and with the usual cargo of wheat. It must have been a 
large vessel for that day, as it had in addition to its cargo 
two hundred and seventy-six people on board. 

From the first the voyagers suffered through untoward storm and 
winds. They beat along the coast until they reached Cnidus, shipwreck 
from which place they made for the island of Crete, reach- 
ing at last the harbor Fair Havens. The season was ad- 
vanced and Paul urged that they winter here. But the 
harbor hardly deserved its good name, and it was decided 
to make for Phoenix, further along the coast. They had 
not gotten far from Fair Havens when a storm from the 
northeast swept down upon them. The task of the seaman, 
without compass or steam, was hard enough in that day 
in any case. Now they were swept on day after day with- 



2-o NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

out sun or stars even to let them know their course. The 
ship's company seems to have reached a stage of despair 
where they would not even eat. In the night Paul had 
one of those visions which marked more than one turning 
point in his life. He told them of the vision the next day, 
how the angel of the God "whose I am, whom also I 
serve," had told him to be without fear, that he was to 
reach Rome and that the company should also be saved. 
The shipwreck itself is described with vivid detail by Luke. 
In these moments of peril the commanding figure was 
not captain of vessel or of soldiers, but the prisoner, Paul. 
He prevented the sailors from leaving the boat, and it was 
consideration for him that caused the centurion to check 
the plan of the soldiers, who wanted to kill the prisoners 
lest they escape. 
Malta It was the island of Malta, south of Sicily, where they 

to Rome landed. The winter season was spent here, three months 

in all, after which they shipped for Rome in another Alex- 
andrian vessel which had wintered in the island. At the 
port of Puteoli they left the boat, the remaining journey 
of about one hundred and thirty miles being made on foot. 
They found disciples at Puteoli and the kindly centurion 
permitted a stay of a week. Meanwhile word was sent on 
to Rome. Some of the Roman brethren came out forty 
miles on the road, as far as the Market of Appius, to meet 
Paul, and still others were waiting him at The Three Tav- 
erns, a little farther on. 
Prisoner For two years Paul was kept a prisoner in Rome awaiting 

his trial. They were not idle years. We know of at 
least four letters dispatched during this time — those to the 
Philippians, the Colossians, the Ephesians, and Philemon. 
A large measure of freedom was allowed him. A soldier, 
a member of the pretorian guard, was with him constantly, 
but Paul lived in his own rented quarters and could re- 
ceive visitors as he wished. Of these there must have 
been a great number. Luke tells of the conference that 



PAUL THE PRISONER 271 

Paul had with the leaders of the Roman Jews. The Chris- 
tians would naturally come to him, and, in addition, Paul 
used his opportunity to preach the gospel to guard and 
visitor and whomever he might reach. 

The church at Rome is one of the signs of the rapid The church 
spread of Christianity. We have no knowledge at all atRome 
as to how it was founded. Its membership was largely 
Gentile. It was from this church that Priscilla and Aquila 
had come, and Paul had probably met other members be- 
fore this. His letter to this church had been written from 
Corinth some three years before. There must have been 
a considerable Christian community even then. Paul's own 
labors added to that number. The constant change of his 
guard enabled him to give his message to the Pretorian 
troopers (Phil 1. 13). Onesimus must have been a type 
of others from the lower classes that he won. The mes- 
sage spread even to the servants of the imperial household 
(Phil 4. 22), and Paul's courage emboldened other disciples 
to a more active ministry (Phil 1. 14). Nero's persecution 
a little later shows that the church had become strong 
enough to attract public attention. 

The close of Paul's life is hidden from us. Of one thing The close 
we are certain, though it is not told us in the New Tes- 
tament itself: Paul suffered martyrdom at Rome. This 
we learn from the letter written by Clement of Rome, a 
message of the Roman church to that at Corinth dating 
from the last years of the first century. But what the 
events were connected with his death we do not know. 
There are two theories which scholars hold. Some con- 
sider that Paul was acquitted at his first trial, that he car- 
ried out his plan of a visit to Spain and to his old churches 
in the East, and suffered martyrdom at Rome after a sec- 
ond imprisonment and trial. Others hold that Paul was 
condemned and suffered death at the close of this first im- 
prisonment. 

Connected with this question is the problem of what 



272 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

are called the pastoral epistles — First and Second Timothy 
and Titus. Many scholars hold that these letters do not 
come from Paul's hand in the form in which we now have 
them. Their argument is that the conditions reflected here 
indicate a later period in the life of the church, and that 
the language and the form of teaching do not correspond 
with Paul's other writings. Many of these scholars, how- 
ever, hold that we have here portions of Pauline letters to 
which other matter was later added. 

In any case, these letters do not describe for us the ac- 
tual close of Paul's life or determine the time. That re- 
mains hidden from us. We do know, however, that which 
concerns us most. That is the character and life and 
achievement of this man. He has drawn for us his own 
picture in those letters in which he pours out his soul. 
Luke has portrayed him for us in such scenes as those of 
his voyage to Rome: the kindliness, the helpfulness, the 
faith, the courage, the mastery of himself and of others, 
the natural leadership that made him inevitably the first 
in any company whether of ship and soldiery or of his own 
disciples. And most eloquent of all, we have the witness 
of what he wrought, a Christianity made conscious of its 
independence and its power, of its world-saving message 
and its world-embracing fellowship, and established on firm 
foundations throughout the empire. 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

Read Acts 20 to 28. 

Make a list of Paul's addresses as reported in these chapters, 
giving for each the place, the occasion, and the persons present. 

Trace upon the map Paul's journey from Troas to Jerusalem and 
from Caesarea to Rome. Make a list of the places stopped at upon 
each journey. 



CHAPTER XXXIX 
PAUL THE MAN 

Paul is the best-known man of his age and one of the The many- 
most interesting men of all ages. He had the greatness sxdedPaul 
of a man with a single purpose. His life was given to 
only one end — he was a missionary of the gospel of Christ. 
But to that one task he brought a marvelous diversity of 
gifts, and it is this many-sided character of the man that 
makes his personality so interesting. Preacher, teacher, 
theologian, missionary, church founder and organizer, poet, 
logician, mystic, moralist: he was all these and more. 

I. We may study him first as man of mind, the great The man 
thinker and teacher of Christianity. He had the keenness ofmmd 
and mental alertness which belonged to the Greek, joined 
to the spiritual vision of a Hebrew prophet. His first 
great deed was to interpret Christianity. It is one of the The inter- 
strange facts of history, that this man who never knew christi° f- t 
Jesus personally saw the meaning of Christianity as none 
of the twelve did. He awoke Christianity to self-conscious- 
ness. He gave her a message and a voice. He interpreted 
Christianity to the mind of the Roman world. He showed 
them Jesus not simply as Jewish Messiah but as the Saviour 
of the world. Christianity was first of all a great experi- 
ence to him, but he had also the power to interpret that 
experience. 

But this man of mind was not a man of mere logic. Life, and not 
With all his keen intellect, he was not concerned with merel °e ic 
theory or speculation. His concern is with truth as it 
bears upon life. His great conceptions of religion all root 
in his own experience. And Paul was a psychologist; he 
knew how to read the meaning of what his own soul had 
273 



274 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



Will and 
character 



gone through and to draw its lesson for others. To this 
was joined his experience as missionary, preaching to 
others the truth that had made his own life. Sometimes, 
it is true, we hear the Jewish rabbi speaking in his argu- 
ments, but the great truths for which Paul stands had this 
vital source. It is this that has made Paul so great an 
influence in the Christian thinking of the centuries. 

II. We may consider Paul, in the second place, as a 
man of will. It is his strength of will that first of all 
impresses us. We feel that the personality of Paul is one 
of the great forces of history. This man had a clear pur- 
pose and an indomitable spirit back of it. The will of 
the man is seen in the greatness of that purpose. It is 
no less than the establishment of the new faith throughout 
the empire, and that by his own effort. No hardship, no 
toil, no danger holds him back. Beaten by Jews and by 
Romans, stoned, shipwrecked, imprisoned, fighting against 
illness, against the doubt of fellow Christians and the re- 
lentless hostility of the Jews, he moves on unswerving and 
with undaunted will. He had no organization back of him. 
To disarm criticism he supported himself by labor. And 
for this great work he had but a few years at command. 
Yet he carried out his plan in the main. His great cam- 
paign might well be placed beside that of Alexander or 
Napoleon, while in the permanency of his work he surpassed 
them both. 

The study of Paul's life shows his strength as a leader 
at every stage. He is everywhere the master of men and of 
circumstances. In rude Galatia or cultured Athens, be- 
fore the Philippian praetors or the angry mob of his coun- 
trymen, facing royal judges or in the presence of imminent 
death, he is always the same, unmoved by danger, unawed 
by authority. His independence is the more remarkable 
when we think of his position. His only credentials as he 
began his mission were his story of a vision. That was 
enough, however, for him. That vision and call He back 



PAUL THE MAN 275 

of his independence and his courage. He was an apostle 
"not from men, neither through man, but through Jesus 
Christ and God the Father." For that reason there was a 
deep humility joined to his independence. It is not his 
own strength but God's grace. "When I am weak, then 
am I strong," he said. "I can do all things in him that 
strengtheneth me." "We have this treasure in earthen ves- 
sels," he declares, "that the exceeding greatness of the 
power may be of God." 

On its moral side, then, this strength of will is simply Devotion 
an absolute devotion to high purpose. His life has but 
one meaning — the preaching of the gospel. "One thing 
I do," he says. He has no other interest in life. We hear 
nothing of his family, except a casual reference to his 
nephew. He seems to have cut the ties of home as of 
nation. He has no friends except his fellow workers. "I 
count all things to be loss for the excellency of the knowl- 
edge of Christ Jesus my Lord. I press on, if so be that I 
may lay hold on that for which also I was laid hold on by 
Christ Jesus. For me to live is Christ." 

III. And yet this man of keen intellect and inflexible The man 
will was also a man of heart. Indeed, it is here that we 
find the real Paul. In depth of feeling and range of re- 
ligious experience and emotion it would be hard to find 
another to place beside him. Not that Paul is a flawless 
saint. His passionate feeling seems sometimes to have 
led him to a severity of judgment and a denunciation of 
his opponents which do not accord with his own teachings ; 
and he may have erred on the other side in indulgence 
toward those he loved. If there be such defects, they are 
only incident to his strength. And in this emotional side 
of his nature Paul's strength largely lay. He was no man 
of cold calculation and shrewd prudence. He loved with 
the tenderness of a woman and the devotion of a mother, 
and he could fight with all the passion of his nature. It 
made him the most loved and the most hated of men. He 



276 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The place 
of his 
experience 



The range 
of experience 



bound his friends to him for life, and he gained enemies 
who pursued him to his death. 

Paul's religious experience is the first and deepest ele- 
ment in this side of his nature. Out of this experience 
came his message and his restless activity. Paul will never 
be understood so long as men think of him as primarily 
a great theologian or church organizer. He was. first of 
all a Christian. Doctrine and institution are always sim- 
ply forms in which life expresses itself. The life itself is 
greater than all its forms. Paul did an incalculable service 
to the church in expounding the meaning of the new faith, 
but we must always distinguish between these doctrines of 
Paul and the living faith which they seek to set forth. His 
letters show us again and again how all his thought and 
service flow out of this inner spring. "For the love of 
Christ constraineth us ; because we thus judge, that one 
died for all, therefore all died ; and he died for all, that 
they that live should no longer live unto themselves, but 
unto him who for their sakes died and rose again. Where- 
fore if any man is in Christ, he is a new creature: the old 
things are passed away; behold, they are become new. 
We are ambassadors therefore on behalf of Christ, as though 
God were entreating by us" (2 Cor 5. 14, 15, 17, 20). 

With this depth of Paul's religious life there went an 
equally wonderful range. What he preached to men he 
himself had passed through. His speech may have lacked 
polish, but we do not wonder that it was with power. He 
himself was the sinner, like those to whom he spoke. Out 
of his own heart he spoke of the burden of guilt and the 
bondage of evil : "The good which I would I do not : 
but the evil which I would not, that I practice. Wretched 
man that I am! who shall deliver me out of the body of 
this death?" (Rom 7. 19, 24). The deliverance which he 
proclaimed he himself rejoiced in: "I thank God through 
Jesus Christ our Lord. There is therefore now no con- 
demnation to them that are in Christ Jesus. For the law 



PAUL THE MAN 277 

of the Spirit of life in Christ Jesus made me free from the 
law of sin and death" (Rom 7. 25; 8. 1, 2). When Paul 
speaks of the new life that is given to the believer, of 
the new spirit that lives in man's heart and makes a new 
creature, this too is out of his own experience: "It is no 
longer I that live, but Christ liveth in me: and that life 
which I now live in the flesh I live in faith, the faith which 
is in the Son of God, who loved me, and gave himself up 
for me" (Gal 2. 20). 

Besides the religious life, Paul's emotional nature may Patriot 
be studied in his relations with men. Whichever way we 
turn, we note his depth and power of feeling. He loved 
his nation. This man who made Christianity universal, 
who made it his life task to carry the gospel to the Gen- 
tiles, who was held as a traitor to his race for so doing, 
was, in fact, the most ardent of patriots. He declares that 
devotion in the most solemn words : "I say the truth in 
Christ, I lie not, my conscience bearing witness with me 
in the Holy Spirit, that I have great sorrow and unceas- 
ing pain in my heart. For I could wish that I myself were 
anathema from Christ for my brethren's sake, my kinsmen 
according to the flesh." And with all his work for the 
Gentiles, Israel yet remained for him a nation by her- 
self: "Whose is the adoption, and the glory, and the cov- 
enants, and the giving of the law, and the services of God, 
and the promises, whose are the fathers, and of whom is 
Christ as concerning the flesh" (Rom 9. 1-5). 

Here, as elsewhere, Paul is a man of contrasts. His Contrasts 
depth of feeling could show itself in fierce indignation and 
bitter denunciation, overwhelming his antagonists. "Be- 
ware of the dogs, beware of the evil workers, beware of 
the concision." "Such men are false apostles, deceitful 
workers, fashioning themselves into apostles of Christ. And 
no marvel ; for even Satan fashioneth himself into an angel 
of light." "If any man preacheth unto you any gospel other 
than that which ye received, let him be anathema" (Phil 



278 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

3. 2; 2 Cor 11. 13, 14; Gal 1.9). Yet side by side with 
this he shows the greatest tenderness and patience and per- 
sonal humility. In the very midst of the rebuke of his 
Galatians he calls out to them, "My little children, of 
whom I am again in travail until Christ be formed in you" 
(Gal 4. 19). In the same section in which he writes so 
sternly to the Corinthians, he declares: "I seek not yours, 
but you : for the children ought not to lay up for the parents, 
but the parents for the children. And I will most gladly 
spend and be spent for your souls" (2 Cor 12. 14, 15). Nor 
could anything suggest a more beautiful relation than the 
passage addressed to the Thessalonians where he speaks of 
his relation to them as being like that of a father with his 
sons, a nurse with her own children (1 Thess 2. 7-12). 
Equally attractive is the picture of his unselfish devo- 
tion, that weighs him down at the thought of their sorrow, 
and makes him forget his own troubles in the joy over 
their welfare: "Ye are our glory and our joy. Now we 
live, if ye stand fast in the Lord. For what thanksgiving 
can we render again unto God for you, for all the joy 
wherewith we joy for your sakes before our God?" (1 Thess 
2. 20; 3. 8, 9). 

Of Paul's tact and thoughtfulness and courtesy, men- 
tion has already been made. We have yet to speak of him 
as a friend. The traditional view pictures Paul as a stern 
and lonely man, pursuing his solitary task as he traverses 
land and sea. Nothing could be farther from the truth. 
He could stand alone when needed, but that was the 
measure of his courage and devotion, not the sign of his 
desire. One is surprised in counting up the names of his 
associates and friends that appear in his letters. They are 
here by the score. They appear first of all as the com- 
panions of his journeys and assistants in the supervision 
of his churches. Barnabas is the first of these whom we 
meet. Titus, Timothy, Silas, and Luke are others. Paul 
looked for young men especially to help him in this work. 



PAUL THE MAN 279 

They were not subordinate officials to the great apostle. 
They were his friends, his sons, and he pours the wealth 
of his affection upon them. How considerate he was of 
them is shown, for example, by his thoughtful treatment 
of Epaphroditus (Phil 2. 25-30), and by the letter with which 
he sent Onesimus back to Philemon. And the letters show 
how this strong man craved the sympathy and companion- 
ship of these coworkers. In addition to these were the 
associates whom Paul found in every place where he re- 
mained any length of time for work. Of these too there 
is a long list: Lydia of Philippi, whose guest Paul was; 
Priscilla and Aquila, of tried devotion; Stephanas, Paul's 
first convert in Corinth; Philemon, convert and friend and 
prospective host; Rufus of Ephesus, whose mother was a 
mother to Paul; and with them many others. 

It is not hard to understand how Paul drew such peo- Love.inUfe 
pie to himself. It was because the love which was central and teachin e 
in his teaching was also central in his life. No one quality 
of the Christian life was so emphasized by Paul in his 
writings. For him it was the supreme element in the Chris- 
tian character. At the same time it was the very life of 
the Christian fellowship. It was not organization and 
officers that made the church with Paul, but the indwelling 
spirit of Christ which was love. So love is "the bond of 
perfectness" for the individual as for the church. "Put on 
therefore, as God's elect, holy and beloved, a heart of com- 
passion, kindness, lowliness, meekness, long-suffering; for- 
bearing one other, and forgiving each other, if any have 
a complaint against any; even as the Lord forgave you, so 
also do ye ; and above all these things put on love, which 
is the bond of perfectness" (Col 3. 12-14). Such fine ex- 
hortations come again and again, finding their fitting climax 
in the great chapter on love (1 Cor 13). And all this 
teaching is but the expression of the apostle's own spirit. 

Such was Paul the man, the most human figure, next a human 
to Jesus, that the New Testament or the whole Bible brings 



saint 






28o NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

to us. It is this intensely human character that has made 
him so attractive to those who have really come to know 
him. In his words echo the deepest needs of the human 
heart, its cries and its despair. He shows us our aspira- 
tions too, man aiming at the highest. He makes us feel that 
we too may die to sin and live to God and so run as 
to attain. And yet there is no cold flawlessness about him. 
This man of deep passions and broad sympathies and human 
weakness and need lived upon our own earth. "Not that I 
have already attained, or am already made perfect: but I 
press on." 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

Find in Romans or Galatians a chapter which illustrates Paul's 
power of thought or argument. 

Select three scenes from Acts which illustrate Paul's self-pos- 
session or strength of will. 

Name two letters which show Paul as a friend, and mark sev- 
eral appropriate passages in each. 

Make a list of friends and associates of Paul as given in Romans, 
First Corinthians, Philippians, and Colossians. Note that these 
names occur regularly in the closing chapter. 

From the book of Acts find the names of one or more com- 
panions of Paul for each of his missionary journeys, his last trip 
to Jerusalem, and his voyage to Rome. 



PART V 
THE LATER CHURCH 



281 



CHAPTER XL 
THE FAITH OF THE LATER CHURCH 

The years between 60 and 70 mark a turning point in a turning 
the life of the first-century church. The three greatest pomt 
leaders were taken away, Paul, Peter, and James. Paul 
suffered martyrdom in Rome between 64 and 68. Peter 
met the same fate, according to ancient tradition, at about 
the same time. James, the brother of Jesus, had been put 
to death by the Jews just before this, despite his faithful 
observance of the law. The Jewish war began in 66, and 
in 70 the city was taken and the temple destroyed ; thus the 
link was broken which had joined the Gentile churches to 
the mother church at Jerusalem. 

When we move past this year 70 into the second genera- Scanty 
tion of the Christian Church, we find no books to guide S0X1Tces 

' ° and lesser 

us like the Gospels and the Acts and the letters of Paul, importance 
We have a good many New Testament writings from this 
period, but they do not give us history. We do not know 
the leaders who took the place of Paul and Peter and James. 
The author of the letter to the Hebrews must have been a 
man of learning and ability, but not even his name is pre- 
served. The many workers mentioned by Paul all pass 
from our sight. We hear no more of the gifted and elo- 
quent Apollos. On this account the treatment of this period 
in a New Testament history may be brief. There is a 
second reason for brevity. Deeply interesting though the 
story would be if we could read it, it could not compare 
in importance with that already considered. The vital 
history of the beginnings of Christianity is forever linked 
to two harhes. The first is its Founder, whose message and 
spirit and life and death were the creative fact that brought 
forth all that followed. The second is the great apostle, 
283 



284 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



Three 
subjects 



Jewish 
Christianity 



James: 
Christianity 
as a new law 



who saw the meaning of that life, who proclaimed the good 
news throughout the world, who set forth for all time the 
great truths of the faith, and who established the fellowship 
which we call the church. 

While we have little in the way of historical events, there 
are other matters of interest to consider in this closing 
period of New Testament history. These will be taken up 
under three heads: the faith of the later church, the life of 
the later church, and its writings. 

In taking up the faith of this second period, we turn 
first to Jewish Christianity. The great controversy within 
the church of the first generation was that concerning the 
law: Was the Christian bound to keep the Jewish law? 
In the second generation this question entirely disappears. 
One reason for this was the great and steady advance of 
Gentile Christianity. The other was the lessening impor- 
tance of Jewish Christianity. The Jerusalem Christians 
left the city before its capture and so escaped destruction ; 
by so doing they gained, however, the bitter enmity of 
their fellow Jews and had to suffer a great deal of per- 
secution. 

The epistle of James gives us a good picture of the faith 
of these Jewish Christians. It was formerly held by many 
scholars that this letter was an attack upon Paul and his 
doctrine that man was saved by faith : "Ye see that by works 
a man is justified, and not only by faith" (James 2. 24). 
But there is no thought of opposition to Paul here. The 
writer has not really grasped Paul's great doctrine. To him 
religion is essentially a law according to which men are to 
live. True, it is a higher law ; he calls it "the perfect law, 
the law of liberty." But Paul's great words of grace and 
the Spirit are wanting here. Religion is something to be 
done. Within these limits it is full of fine maxims and 
practical truth, with many echoes of the Sermon on the 
Mount and other gospel passages; but it is not the good 
news that conquered the world. In later years this idea 



FAITH OF THE LATER CHURCH 285 

of Christianity as a new law gained an increasing place in 
the whole church. At this time it seems especially charac- 
teristic of Jewish Christianity. 

Turning to the Gentile churches, the first question is, Gentile 
Did Paul's influence last? Did the great doctrines for Christianity 

. . Paul's 

which he stood remain as the church's conception of Chris- influence 
tianity ? In large measure yes. ( 1 ) Christianity remained 
the universal religion for which Paul fought, not a mere 
variety of the Jewish faith. (2) Paul established once for 
all the conception of Christ as being on the one hand truly 
man, born of woman, and on the other the eternal Son 
of God and the Saviour of men. (3) Paul's doctrine of 
the Spirit as ethical remained. He saved Christianity from 
the danger of fanaticism by insisting that the Spirit was 
the Spirit of Christ, that it meant love and righteousness 
and not emotional ecstasy and physical excitement. (4) 
The Gentile church remained as Paul had founded it; 
Christianity stood, not simply for individual faith and ex- 
perience, but for an ordered and organized fellowship, em- 
bracing all believers in its unity, and joined in a life of 
mutual love and service. 

And yet the church did not keep the level of Paul's Paul's central 
highest thought. That was Paul's answer to the question, teaching 
How shall a man be saved? Paul said: (1) A man is saved 
by God's grace. God is the Father. He is not a master 
whose help men must first earn. He is not an unwilling 
power, whom men must compel by sacrifice. He is the God 
of mercy, loving the world, giving his Son, forgiving the 
sins of men. "God was in Christ, reconciling the world 
unto himself." (2) A man is saved through faith ; we 
might say trust instead. God's part is graciously to give ; 
man's part is with love and trust to receive. Religion is 
not a proud and self-satisfied doing. It is a loving, self- 
surrendering trust of the soul. (3) All this means a new 
spirit in a man. It is the man made over, the "new crea- 
tion," Paul says ; but not made over from without by effort 



286 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

or knowledge. The new spirit which makes the man is 
God's Spirit in him. You may also call it the spirit of 
Christ. That is what it is : the love and purity and obedience 
and kindness which were the spirit of Jesus upon earth. 
(4) And this spirit which is God's gift, is our task at the 
same time. The Christian must live it out day by day: 
"If we live by the Spirit, by the Spirit let us also walk." 
It means obedience, but not to an outer rule. The law is 
within us, and the life is one of freedom. 
The In three respects the church moved down to a lower level : 

lower level ( j ) Faith instead of being a personal trust came to be a 
belief in the doctrines of the church. Faith as a personal 
deed gives place to "the faith," which is a sum of doctrines. 
First Timothy shows the beginnings of this. (2) There 
appear, as has been noted in James, the beginners of a new 
legalism. It is not a falling back into the Jewish law, but 
it is an overemphasis upon Christianity as a new law, and a 
failure to see clearly that the right doing must spring from 
an inner spirit. (3) The freedom of the spirit gives place 
more and more to the authority of the church as an external 
and legal institution, whose officers are to rule and govern 
in all things. In the period which we are studying only 
the beginnings of this movement are apparent. In part it 
was inevitable. Indeed, Paul himself helped prepare the 
way. The church had to move forward on these three lines : 
to define its faith in creeds, to emphasize rules of conduct 
and require obedience, and to perfect and establish its 
organization. Paul himself, however, was not lost from 
the church. Though the church fell below his standards, 
yet he remained as a leaven within her life, even in the 
Roman Catholic Church. His religion of the spirit has 
always been a protest against the overemphasis of creed 
and rules and organization, and has broken forth suc- 
cessfully again and again in the great reformation move- 
ments. 
Hebrews The New Testament contains two monuments which wit- 



FAITH OF THE LATER CHURCH 287 

ness to the abiding influence of Paul in this period. The 
first is the writing called "The Epistle to the Hebrews." 
The title, which is not a part of the book itself, is hardly 
correct. It is a treatise rather than an epistle, and it was 
probably for Christians in general rather than for Jewish 
Christians. It was not written by Paul, but it shows his 
spirit and influence. Christianity is set forth as the world- 
religion, existing from the beginning. Judaism was simply 
its stage of preparation ; after the prophets comes the Son. 
And all the ceremony of Judaism is only the symbol of the 
spiritual and eternal which is in the Son. Christianity is 
the religion of redemption, and Christ is the final sacrifice 
which puts an end to all others. Paul wrote merely letters ; 
this is a literary and theological product, but it has not the 
freshness or life or power that Paul's letters possess. 

Far greater than the letter to the Hebrews is the group of johannine 
writings which includes the Gospel and the three epistles wntmgs 
of John. These four writings belong together, and they too 
bear eloquent witness to Paul's influence. Ancient tradition 
ascribes them to the apostle John. Many scholars think 
that while they represent the tradition of John's teaching, 
the writings themselves were composed by one of his dis- 
ciples, or by another John than the apostle. We know but 
little of John's life. One tradition states that he suffered 
early death as martyr like his brother James. The more 
common tradition holds that he spent his last years in 
Ephesus, beloved by all and of great influence; that he 
wrote the Gospel and epistles at Ephesus and the Revelation 
while in exile at Patmos ; and that he died an aged man at 
the close of the century. 

Why was the Gospel of John written? For twenty or The fourth 
thirty years the church had had three accounts of the words ^^d™' 
and deeds of Jesus, our present synoptic Gospels. Though character 
the fourth Gospel gives us mainly incidents from Jerusalem, 
instead of from Galilee, it does not add enough to the knowl- 
edge of Jesus' life to have been written simply as a supple- 



288 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

merit to the other three. The author himself gives us his 
purpose. Out of the many wonders which Jesus wrought 
he has selected certain "signs" ; and "these are written, 
that ye may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God ; 
and that believing ye may have life in his name" (John 20. 
30, 31). This is the double purpose — to set forth Christ 
and to show the life that men have through him. As we 
read this Gospel carefully we see that it is quite a different 
work from the synoptics. It is still in the form of a story 
of Jesus' words and deeds ; but it is far more of a sermon 
than a biography. Each sign or saying of Jesus is like a 
text from which John preaches his sermon and proclaims 
his faith in Christ and his conception of Christ. For that 
reason he does not concern himself to distinguish sharply 
between his own words and those of Jesus. This can be 
seen, for example, in the third chapter, where one cannot 
separate definitely the words of Jesus, of John the Baptist, 
and of the evangelist. The Gospel is a great confession of 
faith, a great sermon like one of Paul's. The words and 
deeds of Jesus are like a window, through which the evan- 
gelist seeks to show us his vision of the eternal. He is 
neither biographer nor theologian ; he is a preacher. What- 
ever he writes he sets forth that we "may believe," and that 
we "may have life in his name." 
The occasion The faith that is here set forth is nothing more than 
for the Gospel p au j' s teaching concerning Christ, but there was special 
reason for its declaration at this time. Almost all the later 
writings of the New Testament show us that with the last 
years of the first century many different forms of doctrine 
arose which claimed to be Christian teaching, but which 
differed from the earlier faith of the church. There were 
teachers who declared that because Jesus was divine he 
could not have suffered and died. These men made his life 
a mere show, and so denied the actual humanity of our 
Lord. This was called docetism. There were others, on 
the contrary, especially among the Jewish Christians, who 



FAITH OF THE LATER CHURCH 289 

denied his divinity. He was to them simply a great teacher, 
a prophet as others before him. 

Over against these two, John sets forth his great message Jesus as 
in his epistles and Gospel. Jesus is for him the eternal Son of^dandas 
of God who was with the Father from the beginning, and true man 
who has come to be the life and light of men. This is the 
message of his prologue (1. 1-18). This is his theme, 
whether he reports the words of Jesus or tells of his deeds. 
Thus the deeds which he reports are "signs." They are not 
thought of primarily as deeds of mercy wrought to help men, 
but as signs of the divine power and majesty of Jesus. 
There are seven such deeds, finding their climax in the 
raising of Lazarus. Similarly, the words of Jesus which 
he reports do not concern themselves so much with the 
duties of men, as in the sermon on the mount, but are, 
rather, a setting forth of the same theme of Jesus' own v 
person and its meaning. In lofty speech and beautiful 
figure this is proclaimed again and again : "I am the living 
bread" ; "Whosoever drinketh of the water that I shall give 
him shall never thirst"; "I am the light of the world"; "I 
am the door of the sheep" ; "I am the good shepherd" ; 
"I am the resurrection, and the life" ; "I am the way, the 
truth, and the life" ; "I am the true vine" ; "I have overcome 
the world." At the same time John sets forth just as 
clearly the real humanity of Jesus. He shows him to us 
hungry and weary as he rests by the well, weeping by the 
grave of his friend, struggling in the garden, suffering and 
dying upon the cross. All this is but Paul's great message 
of the Christ "who was born of the seed of David according 
to the flesh, who was declared to be the Son of God with 
power, according to the spirit of holiness, by the resurrec- 
tion from the dead" (Rom 1. 3, 4). But while Paul finds 
his theme in the resurrection and the living Christ, John 
turns back to the Jesus who walked on earth, and shows us 
his glory in that earthly life. That was John's great 
service, to join together the Jesus of Nazareth whom the 



with Christ 
in God 



290 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

Gospels set forth with the divine Christ whom Paul pro- 
claimed, and to declare that these two were one. 
The life John's other purpose was, as he states it, to set forth 

Christ so that men believing might have life. As we read 
these pages, we feel the same spirit that speaks to us in 
Paul's letters : this man writes of that which is his own life, 
and which he wishes us to have. Chapters 14 to 17 set this 
truth forth especially. No passages in the New Testament 
have been more cherished by Christians or have had a 
deeper influence. That is why this Gospel has been called 
from early days "the spiritual Gospel." It has been the 
great book of personal devotion. One need only begin 
with the fourteenth chapter and mark the familiar passages 
to realize the place that this book has filled: "Let not your 
heart be troubled. In my Father's house are many man- 
sions. I am the way, and the truth, and the life; no one 
cometh unto the Father, but by me. Whatsoever ye shall 
ask in my name, that will I do. I will pray the Father, 
and he will give you another Comforter, even the Spirit of 
truth. If a man love me, he will keep my word: and my 
Father will love him, and we will come unto him, and 
make our abode with him. Peace I leave with you; my 
peace I give unto you : not as the world giveth, give I unto 
you. I am the vine, ye are the branches: he that abideth in 
me, and I in him, the same beareth much fruit." And in all 
this, the question is not whether John is giving us the 
literal speech of Jesus, any more than Paul in his preaching. 
The message of John is essentially that of Paul, and the 
real question is whether they are setting forth the mind and 
spirit of Jesus. That such a book should come from the 
closing years of the first century is testimony, not only to 
the abiding influence of Paul's teaching, but even more to 
the abiding power of the spirit of Christ. 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 
Mention six dangers or faults against which the readers are 
warned in James. Here as elsewhere cite chapter and verse. 



FAITH OF THE LATER CHURCH 291 

Make a list of the passages in First Timothy which refer to 
doctrine or teaching or the faith. 

Read the prologue of the fourth Gospel, John 1. 1-18, and make 
a list of John's various statements about Christ. 

Make a list of the seven miracles, or "signs," recorded in John, 
beginning with the marriage feast at Cana and ending with the 
raising of Lazarus. 

Make a list of at least eight of the sayings of Jesus concerning 
himself, such as "I am the living bread," as found in John. 

From John 14 to 17 select ten or more individual verses or 
passages which set forth the ideal of the life of the disciple in 
relation to God or Christ. 



Two 
questions 



The bishop 
and his 
authority in 
the year 150 



CHAPTER XLI 
THE LIFE OF THE LATER CHURCH 

We have no such writings as Paul's letters to the Co- 
rinthians to give us the picture of the life of the church 
in the last part of the century. Some facts we may gather 
from the late epistles and the book of Revelation. Aside 
from these we have only the writings outside the New Tes- 
tament which come from the early part of the second cen- 
tury. Two questions call for answer: (i) What was the 
inner life of the church? (2) What was its place in the 
empire ? 

There are two words around which we may gather the 
story of these last years of the first century and opening 
decades of the second. They are bishops and martyrs. The 
first word suggests the change that took place in the inner 
life and organization of the church. The different steps of 
this change we cannot tell, but we do know the marked 
contrast between the church of 150 and the churches 
at the time of Paul's death. The churches of Paul 
had only the simplest organization, as we have seen. 
Men talked of service, not of authority. This service 
was of many kinds, but it was all the gift of one Spirit. 
The inspired prophets and teachers of the Word stood first. 
But the Spirit belonged to the whole church. A century 
later all this is changed. We find three offices in each 
church — bishop, elders, and deacons; but the authority is 
in the hands of the one man, the bishop. He is no longer 
the simple overseer. He has taken up within himself the 
various duties that at first belonged to different men or to 
the church as a whole. The practical affairs of the church 
are still in his hands, but these are of greatly increased 
importance. He has charge of the worship. Men are be- 
292 



LIFE OF THE LATER CHURCH 293 

ginning to feel that the inspiration is no longer in the 
church as a whole, or in certain prophets and teachers, but 
in the bishop. The simple, unregulated worship is gone. 
There is no longer any chance for the irregularities that 
appeared at Corinth. The bishop presides at the service, 
which follows a regular order, and it is he that preaches. 
He has charge of the church discipline. The apostles and 
eyewitnesses are gone. He represents the tradition of what 
the true faith is. Instead of a group of overseers or elders, 
this bishop stands alone. Just what the position of the elders 
is we do not know. The deacons are simply the officers who 
carry out the bishop's directions. As yet, however, the 
bishop is not placed over any district or diocese ; he simply 
directs the life of the one congregation. 

All this took place very gradually. We do not know 
the steps, but we know some of the causes. (1) There 
was the decline of faith in immediate inspiration. The 
first outburst of enthusiasm gradually passed. There was 
a lessening number of prophets who felt themselves directly 
inspired. (2) There was found to be a need of regulating 
these inspired leaders. Paul had met this at Corinth. The 
inspiration did not always seem to be genuine or profitable 
to the church. All manner of things could be said and 
done and the claim made that they were inspired. Early writ- 
ings show that some of these "prophets" made their in- 
spiration a means of living off the church, and rules had 
to be adopted to guard against this. The conflict between 
the "officials" and the "inspired" leaders lasted through the 
second century, but long before the end the regularly 
chosen officials had taken the first place. (3) The same 
need of order appeared in other respects. As the church 
grew, its practical interests increased in importance and 
number. Matters of discipline, of the care of the poor, 
of protection in times of persecution, of representation of 
the local church so that it could act with other churches, 
and other like interests demanded responsible men in per- 



294 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The case of 
Diotrephes 



Moral life; 
charity 



Public 
worship 



manent position. With the second century questions of 
doctrine became ever more important. Over against all 
manner of vagaries and strange teachings these officials 
stood as the custodians and guarantors of the faith handed 
down from the apostles. 

It has been suggested by some that the third epistle of 
John is a witness of the early stage of the controversy be- 
tween the regular official, or bishop, and the inspired proph- 
ets. Diotrephes seems to have been such an official who 
refused to welcome the traveling prophets when they came : 
"Neither doth he himself receive the brethren, and them 
that would he forbiddeth and casteth them out of the church" 
(3 John 10). He is censured as a church boss, "who loveth 
to have the preeminence." Gaius, to whom the letter is 
addressed, is bidden to receive the "brethren and strangers," 
and to set them forward on their journey. All these changes 
occurred gradually, and they were in process during the 
last years of the first century. 

In its moral life the church seems to have made steady 
advance. Roman critics of Christianity like Pliny admit the 
moral excellence of the life of its followers. The writings 
of this time all show the constant emphasis upon the pure 
and true life. The charity of the church was especially rich 
and beautiful. And yet there was wisdom in its exercise. 
The traveling brother was cared for two or three days. If 
he did not pass on then, he was to work; but the church 
was to help him find employment. The church had followed 
in the line of Paul's teaching: "If any will not work, neither 
let him eat" (2 Thess 3. 10). No doubt the industry and 
sobriety which the church inculcated helped to make it an 
economic force in the empire. 

The regular worship of the church was on the first day of 
the week. Though more and more under the direct leader- 
ship of one official, it was still a very simple service. Lessons 
were read from the prophets of the Old Testament. New 
Testament writings were not yet placed by the side of this 



LIFE OF THE LATER CHURCH 295 

as Sacred Scripture, but there is little doubt that in different 
parts of the church letters of Paul or portions of gospel story- 
were read, the latter being- called the "memoirs of the 
apostles." In earlier days the prophets and other inspired 
leaders would speak; later this fell to the officials. The 
church had inherited the psalms from the synagogue and 
used these in her service. To these she added Christian 
hymns. It is perhaps a portion of one of these that we have 
in 1 Tim 3. 16: 

He who was manifested in the flesh, 

Justified in the spirit, 

Seen of angels, 
Preached among the nations, 

Believed on in the world, 

Received up in glory. 

The Lord's Supper was celebrated in the morning. The 
regular church supper, known as the love feast, or agape, 
had been separated from the former and was held in the 
evening. 

From the close of this period, that is, about the middle The 
of the second century, dates the first formal creed of the "£lH 
church so far as known, probably originating in Rome. It 
was used by the candidate for baptism. The earliest baptism 
was with the simple words, "in the name of Jesus." Later 
the baptism was "in the name of the Father and of the 
Son and of the Holy Spirit." This trinitarian formula 
was now expanded into a creed which still moved about the 
three persons of the Trinity. "I believe in God the Father 
almighty; and in Christ Jesus his only begotten Son, our 
Lord ; born of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary, crucified 
under Pontius Pilate and buried, arising on the third day 
from the dead, seated on the right hand of God, whence 
he cometh to judge the living and the dead. And I believe 
in the Holy Spirit, the holy church, the forgiveness of sins, 
the resurrection of the flesh." Like everything else at this 



296 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



Lord's Day 
and Sabbath 



Martyr 
beginnings 
under Nero 



Continued 
hostility 



time, this creed was referred back to the apostles and so was 
called the Apostles' Creed. 

The first day of the week was regularly used for worship, 
and this may have been the case from the first. Its Christian 
name was Lord's Day (Rev 1. 10). It was never called the 
Sabbath day, and was never by the early Christians identified 
with the latter. Paul had classed the Sabbath days with 
other Jewish customs made obsolete by the gospel (Col 2. 
16, 17; Gal 4. 9, 10). As Sunday was not the Sabbath day, 
the Christians did not refrain from labor upon it. It was 
first of all a day of worship and gladness. Gradually it 
came to be a day of rest. But it was centuries before any 
one thought of confounding the Christian Lord's Day with 
the Jewish Sabbath, or of applying the fourth commandment 
to the former. 

The other word about which the history of this period 
may be centered is that of martyr. It is the time of begin- 
ning persecutions on the part of the state. The word 
"martyr" means simply "witness," and the martyr was one 
who gave witness to his faith at peril or at cost of his life. 
It was Nero that began this persecution. The great con- 
flagration at Rome occurred in the year 64. Rightly or 
wrongly, the popular mind charged Nero with the deed. 
Nor were the people satisfied even when he began to re- 
imburse those that had suffered loss and to rebuild the city 
in splendid manner. They wanted some one to suffer for 
the crime. Nero picked upon the Christians for this pur- 
pose. They were poor, they were disliked. The people 
were ready to see them suffer, especially as their death 
was made a public sport; and Nero diverted attention 
from himself. 

This of itself was simply an episode, but it seems that 
what Nero began in this special manner became a more or 
less settled attitude of hostility to the Christians on the part 
of the state. We are not sure of the date of the later 
writings of the New Testament, but Peter, large portions of 



LIFE OF THE LATER CHURCH 297 

First Timothy, James, and Revelation all come within this 
time, and all of these refer to persecutions. 

Almost exactly a century after the burning of Rome, Evidence 
Pliny was sent by the emperor Trajan to be governor of fromPliliy 
Bithynia and Pontus in Asia Minor. There he found that 
the Christian religion had spread very widely, not simply 
in the cities where it was always strongest, but in villages 
and country also. The temples were being deserted, and 
trades that depended upon the temple patronage were being 
interfered with, such as the sale of fodder for animals kept 
for sacrifice. Pliny writes to inquire just how he is to 
proceed against the Christians, and whether he has been 
taking the right course. He does not ask whether he should 
proceed against them, but simply how ; and the whole cor- 
respondence, which has been preserved for us, suggests 
that the hostile attitude of the state toward the Christians 
was a recognized policy. 

Why should the empire have persecuted the Christians? Reasons 
It was not religious intolerance, for the empire welcomed h ° r sti ^^ an 
and adopted all manner of faiths from all lands. It was 
not the crimes of the Christians. Whenever serious investi- 
gation was made, as by Pliny, the popular charges were 
seen to be unfounded. The real reason was political, with 
popular hatred pushing on the officers of the state. The 
one thing upon which Rome insisted was the unity of the 
empire and absolute reverence for her laws and order. With 
these interests Christianity seemed to interfere. 

And first with the principle of unity. The first fault of Opposition 
the Christians was that they stood for a unity which was fellowship 
not that of the empire. It was the unity of their faith, and organ- 
their brotherhood, of the kingdom of God. The Romans lza 0D 
wanted no other bond of unity than that of the empire. 
With religious societies and religious meetings there was 
no interference. But other associations were most carefully 
watched. Benefit clubs among the poor, such as those with 
burial funds, were about the only associations tolerated, and 



298 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The emperor 
cult 



Opposition 

and 

prejudices 



these were strictly controlled. It was the fear of anything 
like a common political association among the people which 
countries like Russia and Turkey show in our own day. 
The Christians kept the laws of the empire. They planned 
no insurrection. The church was no political organization. 
And yet the government discerned rightly that here was a 
force that in its final spirit was opposed to the spirit of 
autocracy that belonged to Rome. Nevertheless the church 
in the end might have saved the empire, if her help had been 
called upon soon enough. Rome relied upon an external 
and autocratic power to hold the empire. That was not 
enough. It was the decay of the people that caused her 
doom, and the church might have changed that decay into 
life. 

Later on the refusal of the Christians to worship the 
emperor was a charge brought against them. But this too 
was looked upon as political and not religious. The worship 
of the emperor was simply one part of the plan to assert 
and secure the political unity of the empire. This emperor 
cult is referred to in Rev 13 as the worship of the beast. 

Back of this principle of the state there lay the strong 
prejudice of the people which was shared by officers and 
emperors as well. The prejudice took many forms. (1) 
There was the opposition, such as Paul met at Ephesus, 
of tradesmen whose business suffered by the spread of 
Christianity with its hostility to pagan worship and to the 
practice of vice. Then, as now, there were large profits 
joined to such practices, and we need only think of the 
hostility shown to-day by those who make profit from com- 
mercialized vice in saloon and gambling den and brothel. 

(2) There was no doubt personal opposition from those 
whose families had been divided, who saw believers separat- 
ing from fathers and mothers and brothers and sisters 
because of the new faith. Enemies could only explain this 
strange power over converts by charging sorcery and magic. 

(3) There were unfounded charges that were raised against 



LIFE OF THE LATER CHURCH 299 

the Christians for centuries. The Lord's Supper, with its 
wine used as symbol of blood, was made the occasion for 
the story that Christians killed little children and drank 
their blood, just as the charge of ritual murder against the 
Jews still persists in Russia to-day. Profligacy was charged 
because of the secret meetings at which both sexes were 
present. (4) More than anything else, it was the inflexible 
attitude of the Christians about certain matters that angered 
the people and brought the severe condemnation of even 
men like Pliny and later on the emperor Marcus Aurelius. 
Aside from Judaism, Christianity represented here some- 
thing wholly new in religion, for /which even Marcus 
Aurelius had no comprehension. For the Romans religion 
was a matter of social custom and convention. Its forms 
could be changed or added to at will. To add a new form 
or a new god might be very wise and safe. It might even 
be well to erect an altar to an "unknown god," lest one 
should have been overlooked. In any case, there was no 
possible harm in such conformity. For the Christians reli- 
gion was a principle of conscience and a supreme loyalty 
to one God: "We must obey God rather than men." To 
others the attitude of the Christians seemed nothing short 
of willful perversity and wicked obstinacy. Especially did 
this appear when they were brought up for trial. Often all 
that was asked was to pour out a little wine before a shrine 
of the emperor, or to deny the Name with which they were 
called, the name of Christ. Such refusal angered officials 
as well as people. To the former it seemed highly 
dangerous : it was the spirit of insubordination which in an 
individual might not be serious, but in a great and growing 
fellowship meant danger to the empire. 

For this reason, as we learn from Pliny's letters, it was The crime 
thought enough to convict a man of being a Christian, even ^ e ^ a 
though no special crimes were charged against him. Over 
against this, the Christian leaders of the second century 
pleaded that they might be convicted upon the proof of 



30o 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



Apocalypses 
and their 
character 



The meaning 
of Revelation 



crime, not by the charges of prejudice. Their position is 
nobly voiced by a word of Justin Martyr that has come down 
from the middle of this century: "It is our maxim that we 
can suffer harm from none, unless we be convicted as doers 
of evil, or proved to be wicked. You may slay us, indeed, 
but you cannot hurt us. But, lest any should say that this 
is a senseless and rash assertion, I entreat that the charges 
against us may be examined ; and if they be substantiated, 
let us be punished as is right." He pleads that "neither by 
prejudice nor desire of popularity from the superstitious, 
nor by any unthinking impulse of zeal, nor by that evil 
report which has so long kept possession of your minds, 
you may be urged to give a decision against yourselves." 

The book of Revelation is a writing born out of this 
situation of persecution and danger. It may be studied 
either as an apocalypse of the future, giving us prediction 
of what is to be, or as a book of religion written to strengthen 
faith and give comfort. All apocalypses have this double 
character. They come out of times of great persecution 
and danger. Their purpose is to encourage the faithful lest 
they fall away. The method of these books is that of visions. 
The writers are prophets who see. They use pictures and 
symbols constantly. These pictures are not original with the 
individual writer. They are more or less the common 
language of such productions. 

While we cannot interpret with certainty all the symbols 
of the book, its general meaning on the apocalyptic side is 
clear. It sets forth the story of the future in pictures. 
Rome has been persecuting the Christians. Her time is now 
fulfilled. She is the Babylon that is to be destroyed. The 
world is hopelessly evil. Salvation is to come not by the 
growth and spread of the Christian faith, but by a great 
catastrophe which is to destroy the present world. Then 
the New Jerusalem is to be let down out of heaven. In it 
the saints are to be gathered together and God is to dwell 
with them in the city of light. 



LIFE OF THE LATER CHURCH 301 

All this apocalypticism represents something taken over Limitations 
from the Jewish church of which Christianity was gradually of the book 
ridding itself. More and more the church saw that the 
world was to be changed and the kingdom was to come by 
gradual moral and spiritual conquest, and for this reason 
many opposed the reception of this book into the New 
Testament. 

But all this must not hide from us the real message of The double 
the work. That lies in its practical purpose which is ap- message 
parent all the way through. The book was probably written 
about 95, in the reign of Domitian, but it reflects the con- 
ditions of Nero's persecution as well. The disciples are in 
danger. They are facing the demand that they should 
worship the beast, that is, the image of the emperor, or 
else be put to death (Rev 13. 15). The writer sets before 
them the end that is near at hand. He brings a message of 
warning: the Lord is coming as a thief in the night; let 
his followers cleanse themselves from all evil, for he will 
give to each one according to his works. But above all he 
writes for encouragement, that he may help believers to 
remain faithful. 

The words of warning are found especially in the mes- Warnings to 
sages to the seven churches of Asia Minor to which the ^ r s c e J e e s n 
writing is addressed. These opening chapters give us a 
picture of the church life of the time. On the whole, the 
picture is encouraging. Three dangers are in these warn- 
ings. There was the danger of simple indifference, the loss 
of spiritual life : "Thou hast a name that thou livest, and 
art dead" (3. 1). "I know thy works, that thou art neither 
cold nor hot" (3. 15). There was the danger of sinful 
laxness, such as appeared at Corinth, joining in the old idol 
feasts and pagan practices. This is probably what is meant 
by the reference to the Nicolaitans (2. 6), to Balaam 
(2. 14, 15), and to "the woman Jezebel" (2. 20). Such 
faithlessness is called fornication, after the manner of the 
Old Testament prophets. The third danger was that of 



302 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



Three causes 
of encour- 
agement 



The faith of 
the book 



apostasy. It is significant of the higher moral life of the 
churches that the references are not to common immoralities. 

The dominant note, however, is that of encouragement. 
Let the disciples be faithful, first of all, because of the sure 
reward. "To him that overcometh, to him will I give to 
eat of the tree of life, which is in the paradise of God." 
"Be thou faithful unto death, and I will give thee the crown 
of life" (2. 7, 10). In varied phrase there is set forth again 
and again the reward for "him that overcometh." The 
second cause for encouragement for the persecuted Chris- 
tians is the coming overthrow of Rome and the powers of 
evil. Rome is "Babylon the Great," "the woman drunken 
with the blood of the saints," "the great city, which reigneth 
over the kings of the earth" (17. 5, 6, 18). But her hour 
is come. The kings of the earth and the merchants who 
shared in her wealth shall look on and mourn her destruction 
and her torment. Not so the saints : "Rejoice over her, thou 
heaven and ye saints, and ye apostles, and ye prophets ; for 
God hath judged your judgment upon her" (18. 9-20). 
The final cause for encouragement is the vision of the glory 
that awaits the saints, the new heaven and new earth that 
are to come when the old is destroyed. "And I saw the 
holy city, new Jerusalem, coming down out of heaven from 
God, made ready as a bride adorned for her husband. And 
I heard a great voice out of the throne saying, Behold, the 
tabernacle of God is with men, and he shall dwell with 
them, and they shall be his peoples, and God himself shall 
be with them, and be their God" (21. 1-4). 

The real message of the book lies not in the visions of 
destruction nor in other prophecies of things to come. 
Neither do we find it in the elaborate pictures of the new 
Jerusalem, with its equal length and breadth and height. 
Rather it is in that great faith which breathes through all 
Messianic and apocalyptic hope from the Old Testament 
prophets on: No forces of evil can stand out against the 
power of God. Whatever the oppression and the burden 



LIFE OF THE LATER CHURCH 303 

now, God and good and righteousness shall rule in the 
earth. 

The persecution of the Christians continued intermittently Extent of 
long after this period. The actual number of the martyred P ersecution 
was not so large. There were probably fewer Christians 
that lost their lives in any one persecution than there were 
Chinese Christians who suffered at the hands of the Boxers 
or Armenian believers at the hands of the Turks in these 
last years. But the danger was an always present one, 
though active persecution came and went; and it was held 
over the Christians by the all-embracing power of the great 
empire. 

More important than the actual number slain was the Effects 
effect upon the life of the church. In times of active perse- 
cution not a few fell away. The church as a whole proved 
steadfast, and the noble example of loyal martyrs was of 
the deepest influence. Men remembered such words as those 
of Polycarp, who suffered in 166 : "Fourscore and six years 
have I served him, and he has done me no wrong. How, 
then, can I speak evil of my King, who saved me ?" Through spread of 
all these years Christianity spread steadily. It entered the christianit y 
army. From the cities it spread to village and country. 
It began with the lowest ranks, but it reached some of wealth 
and high station. There is good reason to hold that Flavius 
Clemens, consul and cousin of the emperor, who was exe- 
cuted by Domitian, suffered that fate for being a Christian, 
as was also his wife Flavia Domitilla. "We are but of 
yesterday," writes Tertullian proudly a century or so later, 
"and yet we already fill your cities, islands, camps, your 
palace, senate, and forum. We have left you only your 
temples." 

DIRECTIONS FOR READING AND STUDY 

Look carefully through James, First Peter, and Heb 10 to 12, 
finding in each of these one or more references to persecution of 
the Christians. Note especially Heb n. It is not a theological 
study of faith, but has a practical purpose. What is this? 



3 04 NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 

Read Rev i to 3. Make a list of some things commended and 
some criticized in these churches, giving references. Make a list 
of the passages containing the word "overcometh," and note the 
different rewards promised. 

Read Rev 7. 9-17 and 14. 1-5. Note that these passages reflect 
the impression made upon the church by the death of the martyrs, 
and offer encouragement by the picture of their reward. 

Read Rev 18 as to the fall of Rome. Compare Isa 14. 3-20 and 
the lament over the fall of Babylon. 

Read Rev 21. 1 to 22. 5 for the description of the New Jeru- 
salem. Note the effort that is made to picture this to the eye. 



CHAPTER XLII 
THE MAKING OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

If the church at the time of Paul's death be compared Two great 
with the church of the year 200, two great changes will be changes 
noted. The first of these has just been discussed. It is 
the change from the simple brotherhood to the ecclesiastical 
institution, from the free guidance of the Spirit and its 
democracy to the single bishop in each church with his 
supreme authority. The second change came with the mak- 
ing of a Christian Scripture, our own New Testament. 
The church of the year 50 had its gospel, but it was not a 
writing or a book. The church of the year 200 had its 
collection of sacred writings which it placed by the side of 
the Old Testament. 

No other deed of the early church was so important as The New 
this. We cannot conceive the history of Christianity without Tes ^ ment 

J J as the great 

these Christian writings. Nor can we overestimate what the gift from the 
treasure is that has been thus bequeathed to us. We need early church 
only think of two of its parts — the Gospels and Paul. The 
great fact of Christianity is Christ. It is not some doc- 
trine about him, nor some institution developed by his 
followers. The great creative fact from which all else 
sprang is the life and spirit and teaching of Jesus. That is 
what the Gospels bring us. They simply set Jesus before us, 
and let him walk and speak and work his great deeds. 
Next to him stands Paul, not the creator but the matchless 
interpreter. No one experienced the meaning of the new 
faith in such fullness and depth as he ; no one set it forth 
with such clearness and power. Every religious movement 
undergoes change. It develops creeds and ceremonies and 
institutions, and it has need of these. But often the life 
itself dies beneath the weight of all this, or else its spirit 
3&5 



306 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



Dangers 



Two 
questions 



The gospel 
at first not 



is radically changed. Christianity has not escaped this 
danger, but it has always had its New Testament, the writ- 
ings that set forth the great creative source in Jesus and 
the first and greatest interpretation in Paul. And so it has 
always kept the means for its own reformation. 

The gaining of the New Testament as a fixed collection 
of sacred writings was not without its danger as well, as 
history has shown. There was the danger that men should 
worship the letter of these writings and lose the spirit which 
they were meant to preserve. There was the danger of 
the idea of the sacredness of the letter, a theory that was 
taken from Judaism. There was the possibility that the 
book and its words might take the place of the Christ and 
his gospel as Paul stood for them. But the making of the 
New Testament, in any case, was inevitable, and we have 
simply to ask how it came about. Here, again, we must 
go beyond the apostolic age into the second century in 
order to understand what the first century had begun. 

There are two distinct questions to be considered: First, 
How did these writings come to be composed? Second, 
How did the church come to regard these writings as 
sacred, to form them into a collection, and to set them by 
the side of the Old Testament? 

It was the living word that counted in the early church 
and not the writing. Jesus himself neither wrote nor 
ordered the writing of his sayings. When he sent his dis- 
ciples forth it was to preach. They were to win men by 
the living word. They needed no authority of book. They 
had simply to bear the good news to men. It was the same 
with Paul as with the first disciples, and it remained the 
same for the first century and longer. It was a practical 
necessity that caused men to take the pen, and the writing 
was distinctly secondary to the spoken word. How this 
came about with Paul has already been seen. The apostle 
could not always be present with the various churches. 
Sometimes he sent special messengers. Often he wrote to 



MAKING OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 307 

them to say what he would otherwise have spoken face to 
face. 

The story of the writing of the Gospels is largely hidden The , 
from us. What Luke tells us in his opening verses is very be e innm e s 
interesting. He says that many had undertaken to write the 
gospel story before him. He indicates that these, like him- 
self, were not eyewitnesses, but had to depend upon what had 
been handed down by those who were, and he seems to 
imply that he had used all these accounts as well as other 
material to make a complete and ordered story. What these 
earliest accounts were we do not know. They probably 
precede all of our Gospels except, possibly, Mark. We 
have one ancient tradition coming indirectly from a church 
father named Papias, and dating about a century after Jesus' 
death. Papias says: "Matthew composed the oracles [or 
sayings] in the Hebrew language, and each one interpreted 
them as he could." He also tells us that Mark wrote down 
accurately, though not in order, everything that Peter re- 
lated of the things said or done by Christ. In addition to 
this, scholars have carefully compared the Gospels them- 
selves to gain what light they could. They have found evi- 
dence that at least two of these Gospels, Matthew and Luke, 
have used earlier writings, and not simply as sources, but 
by incorporating their materials with very little change. 
One of these sources was Mark's Gospel itself. Another 
seems to have been a collection of the sayings of Jesus. 

With these suggestions we can outline the probable story The oral 
of the forming of our present gospel accounts, dividing this penod 
into three stages: 

1. The oral period came first. The disciples who had 
known Jesus told the story of his life and death in preaching 
to others, and repeated his teachings for the instruction 
and guidance of believers. Repeated over and over again, 
the parables of Jesus, his pointed sayings, and stories like 
those of his healings, would come to have fixed forms. 
There was no thought of writing and for two reasons : first. 



3 o8 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



The first 

writings 



Completed 
Gospels 



because the church would naturally prefer the living voice 
of one who had seen and heard Jesus ; and, second, because 
all were expecting the speedy return of Christ and so had 
no thought of writings to preserve his words for the future. 
This may have lasted for years, but the need of writings 
soon appeared. The church was spreading rapidly. There 
were not enough of these eyewitnesses to go around. As 
the years passed too they began to diminish by death. What 
was more natural than to secure in writing brief collections 
of the sayings of Jesus, or stories of his deeds and particu- 
larly of his death? Before this individual believers had 
probably written down for their own use sayings or stories 
heard from a Peter, a John, or another first disciple. 

2. Thus we have the period of the first writings. One 
of these was the collection of sayings of which Papias 
speaks, made by Matthew or by some disciple upon the 
basis of Matthew's teaching. Another was the simple story 
of Jesus' deeds as we have it in the Gospel of Mark, written 
probably by John Mark, with Peter as his sponsor. Other 
and briefer collections of sayings and accounts of incidents 
were made, but we have no individual knowledge of them. 

3. As a third stage we have our present completed 
Gospels. It should be remembered that none of these gives 
in itself the name of the author. The names at the head 
of these writings in our English Bibles are simply the 
tradition of the church. Here, again, we can only speak of 
probabilities. Mark is probably the oldest Gospel and sub- 
stantially the same as the story just referred to. Matthew 
comes next, bearing this name because it contains the col- 
lection of sayings which came from the apostle. The com- 
piler, however, used not only this collection, but large 
portions of Mark, and other materials as well. Luke also 
used these two sources, the sayings and Mark. He had 
other sources, however, in addition, as he indicates, and 
from these he gets such stories as those of Dives and 
Lazarus, the good Samaritan, and the prodigal son, which 



MAKING OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 309 

he alone gives. These three Gospels, in the order named, 
were probably written in the years between 50 and 90, such 
a source as Matthew's collection of sayings being still earlier. 

It is quite probable that the other New Testament writings" 
all had some special occasion for their composition, just 
as the letters of Paul. Revelation was written to strengthen 
the Christians against persecutions. First John was directed 
against particular heresies which it attacks specifically. The 
fourth Gospel had a similar practical and immediate purpose. 

But the story of how these writings were composed does what was 
not answer our second and main question: How did the fi ni »i auth ° nt y 

*. in the early 

church come to make a special collection of them, to include church: oid 
these and no others, and to set them on a level with the Old Te s tament 

and Jesus? 

Testament as sacred writings? Nothing was farther than 
this from the minds of the writers. The early church had 
two authorities. The first was the Old Testament, especially 
the prophets, which it interpreted from the Christian point 
of view. The Old Testament was the Bible of the early 
church, and for over a hundred years it was its only Bible. 
This alone was read in its worship as Sacred Scripture. To 
it the appeal was made in argument as we see from Paul. 
The second authority was the words of Jesus. This too was 
final, and stood even above the Old Testament. Nothing 
shows more the complete mastery that Jesus had over his 
disciples than this fact. These Jews, brought up from child- 
hood to reverence the law and the prophets as the absolute 
and final word of God, yet retained and accepted the word 
of Jesus when he set himself above this and declared, "But 
I say unto you." Neither Paul nor any of the evangelists 
thought of putting their words as final authority for the 
church by the side of the Old Testament or the words of 
Jesus. 

In a sense too the word about Jesus, the gospel, or good The gospel 
news, was authority. This was what they believed, the ™ e ^ s a *l as 
faith that made the Christians one. But this authority be- 
longs to the gospel as a living word, not to any writing as 



3 io 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



Authority and 
inspiration 



Letters and 
Gospels used 
in worship 



such that brings it, whether the story according to Mark or 
the sermon according to Paul as given in his letters. For 
a century and more this remains true. The early writers are 
very careful to quote the exact words of the Old Testament. 
Not so with the writings of the New Testament. Here it 
is the thought that counts, not the words. It is not these 
writings that they hold sacred, but the gospel in these 
writings. "I delivered unto you first of all," Paul says, "that 
which I received" (i Cor 15. 3). These men were anxious 
to hand down the message that they had received, the pure 
gospel, and the writings were a help to this, but they had 
not made a Bible of the writings. 

All this does not mean that the writers did not feel that 
they were inspired, that they were moved by the Spirit of 
God. They felt this just as truly as did the teachers and 
prophets at Corinth of whom we have studied. That faith 
was universal in the early church. Nor did it cease with 
our writings. Clement, who writes about 95 for the Roman 
church to the church at Corinth, makes the same kind of 
claim that the writer of Revelation makes (22. 18, 19). 
But neither of these men would have put their writings on 
a level with the Old Testament. Such a declaration as 
that of 1 Tim 3. 15-17 refers plainly to the Old Testament, 
the sacred writings which Timothy had studied from his 
youth. We see the same distinction in First Corinthians. 
Paul feels that he has the Spirit of God, but he distinguishes 
carefully between the Old Testament to which he appeals, 
the words of Jesus, and his own judgment (1 Cor 7. 10, 12, 
25, 40; 9. 9). Aside from the sense of inspiration, there was 
a special respect given to the authority of the apostles 
from the beginning, and this grew with the passing years. 
Clement of Rome feels that he is speaking by the Spirit of 
God, but he does not think of placing himself beside an 
apostle like Paul. 

The use of these writings in the worship of the church 
was the first step that prepared the way for their valuation 



MAKING OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 311 

as Scripture. Such a use must have been very early, and 
came about very naturally. When one of Paul's churches 
received a letter from him, they were certainly not con- 
tented with reading it once. It would be read again and 
again as they met for worship, till it was fixed in their 
minds. It would be referred to later to help settle questions 
that arose. Thus Clement in his letter from Rome advises 
the Corinthians to take up again Paul's letter to them. What 
Paul suggests to the Colossians (4. 16), that they exchange 
letters with the Laodiceans, must have taken place between 
other churches. Small collections of Paul's letters would 
thus be made. In the absence of Paul these would be read 
to the congregation. In the same manner any church might 
count itself fortunate to possess one of the Gospels, so that 
they might hear the words of Jesus or stories of his deeds. 

Such use does not imply that these writings were as yet Theycometo 
regarded as "Bible." The Old Testament was the Bible 2££to 
and was read as such in the service. The epistles and 
Gospels came in the place of the sermon. They were not 
the sacred text from which men preached ; they were rather 
the message itself, the gospel which was read when no one 
was present to give it with living voice. It was in the 
second century that the change took place. It was a gradual 
and natural change. Read so long by the side of the Old 
Testament, the writings began to share the position of the 
former. The church, moreover, began to see that her real 
message, the truth which justified her, lay in these Christian 
books ; and more and more reverence was being attached 
to the men of the first age who wrote them. 

It was another cause that hastened this process and com- Marcion and 
pelled the church to take definite action. We have noted T e s J^ nt 
the rise of heresies in connection with the writings of John 
by which they were opposed. About the middle of the 
second century these began to seriously threaten the church. 
The most notable leader was Marcion. He joined an 
appreciation of Paul with a strange mixture of wild specula- 



312 



NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY 



He compels 
the church 
to act 



The task of 
the church 



The two 
standards 



tion. He claimed, of course, to represent the true Christian 
tradition. The Old Testament he threw out altogether. 
Then he set up a Christian collection, or canon, in its stead. 
This included the Gospel of Luke with ten epistles of Paul, 
omitting the pastoral letters. Even from these he cut out 
the passages that did not agree with his position. 

The first Christian canon was thus made by a heretic. 
The word "canon" originally meant a rule for measuring. 
As applied to the Scriptures it means the collection made 
according to a given rule and including the writings that 
are held as sacred and authoritative. The church was thus 
compelled to face the question which for years had really 
been present: What are the writings that really represent 
the Christian tradition and authority? It needed a definite 
body of Scriptures to oppose to Marcion and others like him. 

The first task of the church here was not to make a 
collection. That was already made, for the church possessed 
all these writings. The real problem was that of exclusion. 
There were many other writings current among the churches 
besides those of our present New Testament. Some' of 
these had only local currency. Others were quite widely 
used. The epistle of Hermas and the Gospel of the Hebrews 
were among the latter. On the other hand, some of the 
books of our New Testament were not generally accepted. 
Such were Revelation, Hebrews, Jude, Second Peter, and 
Second and Third John. Two influences seem to have 
shaped the decision of the church in its selections. One 
was the extent to which these writings had been used in 
the worship of the church. The other was the apostolic 
character of the writings. What the church wanted was 
to state and to guard the true tradition. Marcion had ap- 
pealed to one apostle. They wished to bring forward the 
authority of them all. The book of Acts aided in this, as 
it was held to set forth the acts of all the apostles. There 
were, of course, writings long held in high esteem and used 
in the worship of the church that did not come or claim 



MAKING OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 313 

to come from the apostles. In case of Mark the authority 
of Peter was called upon; in case of Luke and Acts the 
author was vouched for by his association with Paul. 

We must not picture this work as being done at one time when and 
or by unanimous consent. It was not decided by some 
universal church council. The discussion and differences as 
to the books mentioned above continued for a matter of two 
centuries. The main work, however, was done within a 
period of fifty years. By the year 200 the large part of the 
church accepted the canon substantially as we have it now. 
Two great divisions were taken in without question: the 
four Gospels with Acts, and the thirteen letters of Paul. 
Of the other writings First John and First Peter were 
generally received. Revelation was opposed in some quar- 
ters because of its views on the second coming. Hebrews 
was not generally received until it was attributed to Paul. 
There was thus practically no question about the great and 
essential parts of our New Testament. 

Looking back, one cannot but say that the church was 
guided in this work by the same Spirit by which the early 
church had felt itself controlled. It is our duty, it is true, 
to distinguish between the various writings in the New 
Testament. Some of these works, like James and Revela- 
tion, were criticized by the great reformers, especially 
Luther. But this was because they tried to apply one fixed 
standard to them all. The relative value of these books is 
suggested by the attitude of the early church. We place 
first, as they did, the Gospels and Paul and in this order. 
Roughly speaking, the books about whose acceptance there 
was some question are those which are of lesser value to- 
day. An equally important question is often asked: Were 
not valuable writings omitted, writings that might have 
equal claim to be inspired? There were other Christian 
writings of value, some of them preserved for us, but there 
is not one of these which could command the support of 
scholars if the canon were being formed anew to-day. 



A BRIEF BIBLIOGRAPHY 
Introductory and General 

Huck: Synopsis of the First Three Gospels. 
Hastings or Standard: Dictionary of the Bible, one volume. 
Hall : Historical Setting of the Early Gospel. 
Mathews : History of New Testament Times. 
Wood and Grant : The Bible as Literature : An Introduction. 
Introduction to the New Testament; briefer, by Bacon or Peake; 
larger, by Moffatt or Jiilicher. 

Jesus 

Life of Jesus, Rhees, Gilbert, Holtzmann, and others. 
Kent: Life and Teaching of Jesus. 
Stevens: Teaching of Jesus. 

Paul and the Apostolic Age 

Histories of the Apostolic Age; briefer, by Ropes and Purves; 

larger, by McGiffert and Weizsacker. 
Dobschiitz: Christian Life in the Primitive Church. 
Rhees: Life of Paul. 

Weinel : Saint Paul, the Man and His Work. 
Ramsay: The Church in the Roman Empire, and Saint Paul the 

Traveler and Roman Citizen. 
Deissmann: Saint Paul. 

Huck's Synopsis is of special value in the study of the Gospels. 
The student who can buy but one book should have the Dictionary 
of the Bible. 



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